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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2010 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/historyoflatinamOOswee 



-t^UXjSiL 



to the memory of my sister 

Mrs. Bertha Sweet Baltzell, 

1877-1918 

this book is dedicated, with love 

and gratitude 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PASS 

I. Spanish and Portuguese Background 7 

II. Physical Aspects and Native Races of Latin 

America 21 

III. Portuguese and Spanish Exploration in 

America 32 

IV. The Colonization of the Islands and the 

Isthmus 46 

V. The Conquests of Mexico, Peru, and Chile . . 55 

VI. The Founding of the Agricultural Colonies of 

Spain : Venezuela, Colombia, and La Plata 75 

VII. The Portuguese Colonization of Brazil 84 

VIII. Colonial Administration. 94 

IX. Economic Conditions in Colonial Latin 

America 102 

X. Society in Colonial Latin America 118 

XL Two Hundred Years of Spanish Rule in 

America 129 

XII. The Causes of the South American Wars for 

Independence 140 

XIII. The Wars for Independence 148 

XIV. The Empire of Brazil and the Independence 

OF Mexico 165 

XV. The Backward States and the Military 

Dictators 176 

XVI. The Rise of Progressive South American 

States 189 

XVII. Mexico and the Central American States . . . 202 

XVIII. The Governments of the Latin American 

States 214 

XIX. Races and Society in Latin America 221 • 

XX. Economic Conditions and Industrial Problems 238 

XXI. International Relations and Commerce 253 

XXII. Latin America During and After the Great 

War ., 272 



Km 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAGE 

Frontispiece 

Bolivar, the Liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador 

First Group 73 

Cortes, the Conqueror of Mexico 

Montezuma II, the Emperor of Mexico 

Francisco Pizarro, the Conqueror of Peru 

Francisco de Miranda, the Father of Latin American Indepen- 
dence 

San Martin, Liberator of Argentina, Chile, and Peru 
Second Group 200 

Rosas, the Argentine Tyrant 

Jos6 Balmaceda, President of Chile, 1886-1891 

Benito Juarez, President of Mexico during the struggle against 
the French invasion 

Statue of Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil 

Por&io Diaz, President of Mexico, 1876-1880; 1884-1910 



MAPS 



FAcma 

PAGE 



Spain at Foub Periods 15 

Physical Map of South America 22 

Voyages of Columbus 39 

Colonization of the Islands and the Isthmus 50 

Mexico, 1519 60 

Peru, 1522 68 

Agricultural Colonies of South America 82 

Political Divisions of Colonial Latin America 136 

Northern and Southern Movements for Independence 

IN South America 156 

Movements for Independence in Mexico 170 

South America 190 

Agriculture in South America 240 

Agriculture in Mexico and Central America 243 

Minerals of South America 244 

Minerals of Mexico and Central America 245 

Railroad Map of Latin America 248 

Latin American Exports, 1913 and 1916 270 

Latin American Imports, 1913 and 1916 271 



PREFACE 

This book, designed to meet the need for a suitable text in 
Latin American History, has grown out of a class-room experi- 
ence, and has been prepared primarily for students and teachers. 
The author has had in mind, however, the many outside of 
schools and colleges who are seeking information about our 
neighbors to the South, and hopes that to this class of readers 
the book will have a large appeal. 

Believing it to be the better plan, reading references to easily 
obtainable books have been given at the end of each chapter, 
rather than a more complete bibliography containing books 
practically unobtainable. For this reason also only books in 
English have been cited. 

Thanks are due Professors McDonald, of Indiana University; 
Katharine S. Alvord, of DePauw University; and William T. 
Allison, of the University of Manitoba, all of whom read parts 
of the manuscript. 

w. w. s. 

Greencastle, Indiana, 
DePauw University, 
October 1, 1918. 



PREFACE TO THE ENLARGED EDITION 

The ending of the Great War and certain other important 
events which have occurred since have made it seem advisable 
to add a new chapter to this book. When the book was first 
written the Great War was in progress and the position of 
several of the Latin American States toward the war had not 
yet been determined. These and other things can now be dis- 
cussed with a considerable degree of certainty. It is difficult 
to treat so many matters in one brief chapter, but I have tried 
to be clear and concise. 

The book seems to have been useful, and it is hoped that the 
additional chapter and certain other changes and corrections 
which have been made will add to its serviceableness. 

October 3, 1921. W. W. S. 



CHAPTER I 
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 

Just as the history of the United States begins in Europe, 
and especially in England, so also the history of Latin America 
begins in the Old World, and especially in Spain and Portugal. 
It would be quite impossible to understand the people and 
institutions of Central and South America if we did not know 
something of the conditions prevailing in the Iberian peninsula 
when Columbus made his first voyage of discovery and planted 
the first Latin colony in the New World. Accordingly, we shall 
try, in this chapter, to understand the chief characteristics of 
the Spanish and Portuguese people, and to explain how these 
characteristics were the result of the peculiar history of the 
Iberian peninsula. 

At the beginning of Latin colonization in the New World 
certain characteristics had become definitely fixed in the 
Spanish and Portuguese character, and the marks of these 
peculiarities may be clearly traced in the Latin American of 
to-day. These characteristics may be classified as follows: 
(1) The people of the Iberian peninsula are the product of the 
mixing of races. In fact, they are the most mixed race in 
Europe. Into the Spanish peninsula has come wave after 
wave of conquest, one set of conquests sweeping down from 
the north and west, while another has come up from Africa and 
the east^ (2) They are the most Oriental of all the European 
peoples, made so by the free mixing of the blood of the Jews 
and the Moors with that of the Spanish race, especially during 
the early mediaeval period. Thus we must not think of the 
Spaniard and the Portuguese as we would 

The Peculiar 

Characteristics of the think of the Frenchman or the Englishman, 
Spanish and ^g being pure Europeans, with purely Euro- 

pean traits, but we must think of them as at 
least partly Oriental. (3) At the close of the fifteenth century 
the Spaniard had developed a degree of intolerance beyond 

7 



8 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

that of any other European people. This was due to the fact 
that during the long period of six hundred years the Christian 
states of the peninsula were engaged in a bitter struggle with 
the followers of Mohammed, who had conquered the southern 
part of their country in the early part of the eighth century, 
and were not jBnally overcome until the very year Columbus 
set sail upon his first voyage. (4) This long struggle against 
the Moors in Spain tended to create but two chief interests 
among the people — war and religion; and these two interests 
dominated the whole life of the people. (5) Lastly, due to in- 
tolerance of other faiths, the industrial classes, the Jews and 
the Moors, were driven out of the country, and as the Span- 
iards were not producers of wealth, the country was reduced to 
a deplorable economic condition, just at the time the New 
World was opening up to Europeans. 

The oldest inhabitants of the Spanish peninsula were called 
Iberians. In the course of time other peoples, supposed to be 
of Celtic origin, mingled with the original inhabitants. By the 
third century B. C. there were several distinct tribes, each 
having its own language and customs. Among these tribes 
were the Asturians in the northwest, the Cantabrians to the 
east, while in the north-central portion were the Basques, sup- 
posed to represent the original Iberians. The Galicians occu- 
pied the seacoasts to the extreme northwest and the Lusitanians 
dwelt in what is now Portugal. Thus we see from earliest times 
there were several different peoples, inhabit- 

I. The People of the . , . ^ . , -r> i mi 

Iberian Peninsula a mg what IS now Spam and Portugal. These 
Mixed Race. Early people wcrc in a scmibarbaric state, though 
there are traditions and numerous stories 
which tell of trade with the Phoenicians, and we have definite 
knowledge that the latter, pioneers of commerce in the ancient 
world, established a brisk trade in the precious metals with the 
Iberians. 

The first people to establish a colony in Spain were the 
Greeks, who, following the example of the Phoenicians, opened 
up trade, and later established colonies along the southern 
coast. The Carthaginians, however, were the first to attempt 
a conquest of the country. The invasion was effected by 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 9 

Hamilcar Barca (B. C. 241-218), who saw in the Spanish silver 
mines the means of carrying on the struggle with Rome, and 
in the people a hardy soldiery, "that would match even the 
legions of Rome." After nine years of hard fighting a large 
part of the peninsula was conquered and 
Conqu^f^fS brought under the dominion of Carthage. 
When Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, 
took command of the forces of Carthage, he had at his com- 
mand the men and money his father had secured through the 
Spanish conquest. In the second Punic war, however, Publius 
Scipio destroyed the Carthaginian power in Spain, and from 
B. C. 202 for a period of six hundred years Spain was a part of 
the Roman empire. 

In many respects the Roman conquest of Spain was the most 
important of all the invasions of that country, for to it Spain 
and Portugal owe the basis of their language. Under republi- 
can Rome, Spain was divided into two provinces, called Hither 
and Farther Spain. This was a period of much disturbance, 
for the rule of the Roman officials was so corrupt that the tribes 
revolted, and it was not until B. C. 113 that most of the coun- 
try was subdued and a settled government established. After 
this the Romanization of the country progressed rapidly. Dis- 
banded Roman soldiers were sent as colo- 
B. c. 2M^. 1x^418^*' iii^ers; Roman legionaries, quartered in Spain, 
married Spanish wives, and when relieved 
from duty settled down as permanent inhabitants; cities on the 
Roman model were built, and in the course of time Spain be- 
came the most completely Romanized of all the Roman prov- 
inces. Under the empire Spain was redivided into three 
provinces, Terraconensis in the northern part, Baetica to the 
south, and -Lusitania on the extreme west. The resources of 
the country vrere developed as never before and a literature 
sprang up, which represented the best Latin literature of the 
period, Seneca being the chief literary star of Spain. It is in- 
teresting in this connection to note that the chief Latin writers, 
who follow the group of the Augustan period, mostly hailed 
from the provinces, many of them coming from Spain, so that 
the prophecy, made in the early years of the conquest, "that 



10 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Spain would become more Roman than Rome itself," was lit- 
erally fulfilled. 

The next wave of conquest, sweeping into Spain from the 
north and west, brought the Suevi, the Vandals, and the West 
Goths. In the latter quarter of the fourth century the Suevi 
and the Vandals "swept away the barriers of the Roman empire 
beyond the Alps," entered Gaul, and in 409 passed the Pyrenees 
and entered Spain. This invasion was attended by indescrib- 
able cruelty. The Vandals ravaged the people, plundered the 
country, destroyed the cities, and finally, "satiated with car- 
nage and rapine," they settled down upon the depopulated 
country. Rome was unable to drive out these terrible invaders 
with her weakened legions, but she succeeded in making a half- 
alliance with another barbarian tribe, the West Goths, who 
had recently broken across the boundary in the northeast and 
had swept across Greece and northern Italy down into Rome. 
Their famous leader, Alaric, sacked Rome in 410. Leaving 
The Suevi the Italy, the Goths attacked the Suevi and the 

Vandals, and the West Vaudals and drove them out of southern 
France and Spain into northern Africa. The 
West Goths then settled down in the peninsula, where they 
established a kingdom, which lasted for three hundred years. 

These West Goths, who now became the rulers of the coim- 
try, were Arian Christians, and were therefore distasteful both 
to the Franks, who were orthodox Christians, and to the 
papacy at Rome. The Goths, however, were kindly disposed 
toward the Jews, who now came into the country in consider- 
able numbers, where they became prosperous and wealthy. 
The Jews were not here compelled to resort to the debasing 
means of extorting wealth, which was forced upon them in 
other places, and they became once more tillers of the soil and 
"cultivators of the arts." This condition of things, however, 
The West Gothic began to change in the latter part of the 

Kingdom and the sixth century, when in the reign of King 
^^"^^ Reccared (586-601) Arianism was abolished as 

the religion of the court and orthodox Christianity was estab- 
lished. The Catholic faith soon came to be accepted by most 
of the Arian subjects. This change had far-reaching influences, 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 11 

in that it led to the disappearance of the Gothic language and 

literature and to the complete fusion of the Latin and Gothic 

populations. Another influence which grew 

Orthodox Christianity x r xu' i- • i- • j.-l • 

Displaces Arianism o^* «* t^is change m rehgion was the in- 
creased prominence given the ecclesiastical 
element in the government. High church officials were now 
more influential than the turbulent nobles, and the church 
councils became the legislative assemblies of the kingdom. 
Still another influence growing out of these changed religious 
conditions was the increased intolerance which began to mani- 
fest itself soon after the change to orthodoxy was made. The 
first great persecution of the Jews took place in the reign of 
King Sisebut (612-620), and thereafter the position of the 
Jews in the peninsula became more and more intolerable and 
persecutions more and more frequent. 

The event, however, which gave to the Iberian peninsula its 
most peculiar history, and has been the greatest influence in 
making of the Spaniards a peculiar race, was the Arab and 
Berber invasion, which took place in the beginning of the 
eighth century. In the seventh century after Christ the 
prophet Mohammed began to preach the religion of Islam to 
the Arabian people. For many centuries the people of Arabia 
had lived in strange isolation, undisturbed by the rising and 
falling of kingdoms all about them, paying little heed to the 
outside world. But with the preaching of Mohammed a great 
change was wrought, and the Arabian people, who before the 
time of the prophet had been a loose collection of rival tribes 
wandering over the desert, now were welded into a real nation, 
with one supreme ambition, to bring their new-found religion 
to all mankind. By the time of the death of the prophet his 
religion had spread throughout all Arabia, 
conq^e°te to°7i1r ^^d ^^s followers were busy carrying it to the 
neighboring lands. By the end of the seventh 
century it had overrun Persia and Egypt and had swept across 
Africa as far as the Straits of Gibraltar. Among the tribes in 
northern Africa to fall before the Arabian conquerors were the 
Berbers, a fierce, warlike people who, however, were not sub- 
dued without a great and long struggle. Finally, the only 



12 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

place remaining unconquered in north Africa was the fortress 
of Ceuta, nominally belonging to the eastern empire, just 
across the narrow seas from the shores of Spain. 

At the beginning of the eighth century the West Gothic 
kingdom of Spain was in no condition to resist the onslaught 
of determined conquerors. A large proportion of the people 
were slaves, as in Roman times, while the nobles held the land 
in great estates and lived in luxury and idleness. The middle 
classes were oppressed with taxation and the burdens of main- 
taining the government. The last of the West Gothic kings 
was Roderick, who had gained the throne by deposing his 
predecessor, and the government was in a weakened condition 
and without the support of the people. The Jews also, badly 
treated since orthodox Christianity had become the religion of 
the state, hated the government and were ready and anxious 
to exchange their Gothic masters for Arabian and they were 
active in hastening the downfall of the kingdom. The governor 
of Ceuta also hated King Roderick because of wrongs done 
his daughter, and he too plotted his overthrow, even furnishing 
ships, in 710, to take the first plundering band of five hundred 

Berbers to the shores of Spain. This expe- 
conqu^of^pain dition was fully successful, and the next year 

seven thousand Moors under the leadership 
of Tarik landed safely on the shores of Spain, advanced 
unopposed, and on the banks of the Guadalete, a stream run- 
ning into the Straits of Cape Trafalgar, met the forces of King 
Roderick, and after eight days of fighting completely defeated 
him. In the words of the old Spanish ballad — 

"The Hosts of Rodrigo were scattered in dismay, 
When lost was the last battle, nor heart nor hope had they; 
He, when he saw that field was lost, and all his hope was flown, 
He turned him from his flying host, and took his way alone. 

"He looked for the brave captains that led the hosts of Spain, 
But all were fled except the dead, and who could count the slain? 
Where'er his eye could wander all bloody was the plain, 
And while this he said, the tears he shed ran down his face like rain." 

And so the West Gothic kingdom was overthrown, and for 
eight centuries the fairest provinces of Spain were to remain 
under the dominion of the Moslem. 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 13 

Such have been the waves of conquest and invasion which 
have swept into the Iberian peninsula. Upon the original 
stock, already mixed, has been grafted the stock of the Roman, 
the West Goth, and the Moor, to say nothing of the influences 
left by the Phoenician, the Greek, the Carthaginian and the 
Jew. 

The second characteristic of the Spaniard is that he is the 
most Oriental of all Europeans. After the Mohammedan con- 
n The Spaniard the Q^est of Spain, the line between the Moor and 
Most Oriental of the Christian was not as closely drawn as we 

European Peop es might expect. The Moors were extremely 
tolerant, and the Christians who remained in the conquered 
territories were given undisputed enjoyment of their property 
and religion. Seven churches in Cordoba and six in Toledo 
were occupied by the Christians throughout the whole period 
of the Moorish domination, and public Christian worship was 
allowed. Taxes were on the whole light, and with the excep- 
tion of the poll tax, Moors and Christians were treated alike. 
There was little attempt on the part of the Moors to convert 
the Christians, though many Christians became converts to 
the faith of their conquerors, and intermarriage between the 
races was common. 

Nothing is more interesting in the history of the Spanish 
peninsula than the relation of the Jew to its civilization. As 
we have already seen, Jews were present in Spain in large num- 
bers before the coming of the Moors and welcomed the con- 
querors from northern Africa. Under the Moors the Jews 
found conditions for themselves much improved, and they 
turned again to agriculture and p/astoral life. They also took 
part in the intellectual revival in Spain, and it was the com- 
bined influence of the Jew and the Moor which caused Spain 
for a time to lead the civilization of western Europe. At this 
period there is little doubt but that Spain was the most tolerant 
^ . . „ nation in Europe. The Christian, the Moor, 

Spain the Most , . ' ' 

Tolerant Nation in and the Jew lived together, side by side, each 
Europe in the Early respecting the Other. "The period during 

Middle Ages . . 

which Spanish territory was divided between 
the Christian and the Mohammedan appears, from the stand- 



14 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

point of social enlightenment, the most hopeful in the history 
of the peninsula. The process of race affiliation and assimila- 
tion had begun, and through the mingling of the elements 
present there was forming a new nation, big with the prospects 
of great material achievement." 

Although there was considerable mixing of these three races 
during the early mediaeval period, when they lived together in 
mutual respect, yet the mixing went on more rapidly after 
persecution of the Jews and the Moors. As the influence of 
the church and the church ofl&cials came to be greater in the 
peninsula, toleration gave way to intolerance. The church 
taught the people to abhor the Jew, and from time to time the 
spirit of persecution broke out against them. The tolerant 
attitude toward the Moor also underwent a change, and by 
the thirteenth century the attempt was made to compel both 
the Jews and the Moors to wear peculiar garbs, in order that 
they might at once be recognized and avoided. From the year 
1300 popular hatred of the Jews greatly increased, and in the 
year 1391 there occurred a great and terribly cruel massacre. 
. . , Popular passion against the hated race was 

Persecution of the -, -T i i • c «- 

Jews After 1300. aroused by the preachmg of an oflacial con- 

Their Intermarriage nccted with the court of the Archbishop of 

with Spaniards 

Seville, and a wave of persecution swept over 
the entire kingdom of Castile, spreading at length to Aragon. 
Public authority was paralyzed, Jewries were sacked, and the 
Jews who would not submit to baptism were ruthlessly killed. 
As a result of this terrible persecution Castile and Aragon 
suffered a shock to their commerce and industry, which was 
largely in Jewish and Moorish hands, from which they never 
recovered. After this many Jews professed conversion, and 
were known as conversos. These conversos made up a con- 
siderable proportion of the population, and many of them 
reached positions of authority in both church and state, where 
they became even more fanatical than the Spaniards them- 
selves. Intermarriage between these conversos and the Span- 
iards became frequent, due to the desire of the poor Spanish 
nobility to recoup their fortunes, and by 1500 most of the great 
families of Spain had Jewish blood in their veins. 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 15 

Thus was one Oriental element added to the Spanish 
race. 

The fact that the Spaniard came to be the most intolerant 
of Europeans is due to the long struggle between the Spaniard 
and the Moor rather than to anything inherent in Spanish 
character. As we have already seen, during the early period 
of Mohammedan rule in Spain, a degree of tolerance was de- 
veloped unknown in other European countries. The little 
Christian states which arose in northern Spain were only Chris- 
tian in name. Moor and Christian fought side by side. "The 
Cid," the traditional hero of Christian Spain, fought with 
Moor and Christian alike; for although he led the forces of 
Castile, he nevertheless had Moors in his employ. When, 
however, these Christian states had grown to considerable 
size, and had become better organized, the influence of the 
church naturally increased and the Roman 
tototer^i^^pain Church has never been noted for her tolera- 
tion of other faiths. The early struggles with 
the Moors were not crusades against the infidel, but were 
waged, like all mediseval wars, for plunder or territory. The 
crusading spirit in Spain and Portugal arose at the same time 
as in other European states. The twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
turies were the centuries of the crusades, when all Christian 
Europe was aroused against the infidel, Spain with the rest. 
Spain, however, took little or no part in the expeditions to 
capture the holy places; her crusading zeal was confined to the 
destruction of the infidel at her very doors. 

During these years the church urged the Christian states of 
Spain to rid themselves of the disgrace of harboring the in- 
fidel. The Jew and the Moor were held up before the people 
as enemies of God and the Christian race. While the other 
European states were organizing their orders of Christian 
knights, such as the Knights Templars, the Knights Hos- 
pitalers, and the Teutonic Knights, the Spanish and Portu- 
guese crusaders were organizing their orders of the Santiago, 
and Calatrava, of Alcantara, and Evora. The European 
orders fought the infidel in Syria and in the Holy Land, but 
the Portuguese and Spanish knight fought the infidel in his 



16 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

own peninsula. The Spanish and Portuguese crusades lasted 

The Spanish and Hiuch longer than the crusades among the 

Portuguese Crusades other European states. Gradually the cru- 

Against the Moors ^^^-^^ ^p-^,-^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ Fmnce and England 

and Germany, and by the end of the fourteenth century it was 
no longer a factor in Europe, but not so in Spain and Portugal. 
Here it lasted until the Moor was completely conquered, or 
driven beyond the borders of Spain, and this was not finally 
accomplished until the very year 1492. The crusading energy 
was effective in driving the Moors farther and farther south- 
ward, and on July 6, 1212, the five confederated states of Cas- 
The Battle of Las *i^®' Aragou, Lcou, Navarre, and Portugal 
Navas de Toiosa, won the dccisive battle of Las Navas de 
July 6, I2I2 Toiosa, and the fate of Spain was decided in 

favor of the Christian states. In 1236 Cordoba, the capital of 
the Kalifs, fell, and in 1248 Seville was taken by the Christian 
armies. With the fall of Seville the organized effort to drive 
the Moors out of Spain came to an end, for the latter, retiring 
to the mountains of Granada, maintained themselves for two 
hundred and fifty years longer, only to be finally conquered by 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 

The spirit of intolerance engendered by these long wars 
against the Moors came to its final flower in the Spanish In- 
quisition. In 1480 Ferdinand and Isabella requested authori- 
zation of the pope for the appointment of themselves as in- 
quisitors to root out heresy. To this request the pope readily 
consented, and in September of that year a special court was 
established at Seville, and the famous Inquisition began its 
work. At first the Jews and Moors were not subject to its 
jurisdiction, but on March 20, 1492, the policy in this respect 
was changed, and all the Jews were ordered either to change 

their reUgion or leave the country by July 
toquiSn** 21- This decree instituted one of the most 

cruel and heartless persecutions in history. 
Thus the same year which saw the discovery of America and 
the capture of Granada saw the expulsion of at least one hun- 
dred thousand Jews and the enforced conversion of many more 
thousands. In 1500 the Moors were likewise brought under 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 17 

the jurisdiction of the Inquisition and their enforced conver- 
sion or expulsion followed. 

By the year 1500 Spain had become the Catholic nation, 
par excellence, and her monarchs were known as the most 
Catholic kings. She had become the eldest daughter of the 
papacy and the chief agent in carrying out the papal policy 
throughout the world. 

Another result of the long wars against the Moors was the 
fact that war and religion came to be the dominant interests 
in the life of the peninsula. In the early years of the struggle 
against the Moors refugees fled northward, where they lived 
in the mountain fastnesses. There they occupied themselves 
in fighting and plundering, and every man of them considered 
T-r T,r ^ T, ,- . himself an hidalgo or a knight. And this was 

I/. War and Religion . ° 

Become the Dominant UOt OUly true m the early days, but con- 
Interests in the Life tiuucd to be one of the peculiarities of Span- 
ish society. Every pure-blooded Spaniard 
considered himself as belonging to at least the lower order of 
the nobihty, and there were but two occupations a noble 
Spaniard might honorably enter — the army and the church. 

Spanish society in the sixteenth century seemed to exist for 
the church rather than the church for society. In this century 
there were in Spain "58 archbishoprics, 684 bishoprics, 11,400 
monasteries, 23,000 brotherhoods, 46,000 monks, 13,000 nuns, 
312,000 secular priests, and more than 400,000 ecclesiastics, 
while there were 80,000 civil servants, and 367,000 other 
officials." All these ministered to a population of perhaps six 
millions of people. So devoted to religion and its practices 
was Spain of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that there 
were actually more holy days than there were days in the year; 
thus a pious Spanish, layman might devote every day in the 
year to religious observances. During the reign of Ferdinand 
Importance of Religion ^^^ Isabella the reform of the Spanish church 
in Spain in the had been accomplished, under the direction 

Sixteenth Century i« ii „ j. r^ j' i -^r' i j^i 

01 the great Cardinal Ximenes, and the 
Spanish church served as a model for the reform of the whole 
Catholic Church at the Council of Trent. Accordingly, the 
Spanish conquistador of America was imbued with the typical 



18 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

religious ideas of his country; to spread religion and to convert 
the natives of the New World was one of the chief motives 
which led him to undertake discovery and colonization. To 
him religion and war had always been closely allied. The long 
wars against the Moors had been waged largely on account of 
religion, and therefore to force Christianity upon the natives 
of America by means of the sword was the most natural thing 
in the world for him to attempt. Again and again in the ac- 
counts of the Spanish conquest of America it will be necessary 
to remember the peculiar religious conditions in Spain in order 
to understand the occurrences and actions of the conquista- 
dores. 

All this had a far-reaching effect upon the economic life of 
Spain. The Spaniard was not a producer of wealth. He looked 
with contempt upon trade; he neglected his fields, while he 
entertained a low opinion of the industrial classes and of those 
who were the producers of wealth. In the sixteenth century 
Spain was a very poor country, for not only was agriculture 
neglected but industry of all sorts was at a low stage of devel- 
opment. The expulsion of the Jews and the Moors was a great 
blow to the economic life of the country. The Jews controlled 
certain lines of industry, and had been the bankers and money- 
lenders time out of mind. The Moors were even more im- 
portant economically than were the Jews, for they were the 

tillers of the soil and the raisers of cattle and 
J/sSf 1500°^'*^°° sheep. When these two classes were brought 

under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition and 
many thousands of them were compelled to flee the country, 
Spain lost her most important economic classes. Never were 
economic laws more disregarded than in Spain. The industrial 
and economic condition seemed to be the last thing to be taken 
into account, while every interest had to give way to the de- 
mands of the holy Catholic faith. One can hardly help but 
admire this supreme contempt for worldly interests. 

In the year 1512 the Florentine historian Guicciardini was 
sent into Spain by his government to learn all that he could of 
that country. He remained in Spain for two years, and at the 
end of his investigation made a careful report of what he had 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE BACKGROUND 19 

observed. Speaking of the population he says, "Spain is thinly 
populated, so that towns and burgs are rare, and between one 
great town and another scarcely a house will be found." Aside 
from the great centers, most of the towns were small and had 
rude buildings. The land was very fertile but poorly culti- 
vated. Of the Spaniard he says: "The men of this nation are 
gloomy of temperament and swarthy of complexion. . . . they 
are proud by nature, and it seems to them as if no nation could 
be compared with theirs. . . . They have little love for for- 
eigners, and are very uncivil toward them. They are devoted 
to arms, perhaps more than any other Christian nation. . . . 
In military matters they are great sticklers for honor." In 
regard to trade he observes: "The natives do not devote 
themselves to trade, which they look upon as degrading; the 
pride of the hidalgo goes to his head, and he would rather turn 
to arms with little chance of gain, or serve a grandee in wretch- 
edness and poverty, or before the time of the present king, even 
^ . . assault wajrfarers, than engage in trade or 

Spam m 1512, as 1 i . m. 

Described by the any Other busmcss. . . . The whole nation is 
oS^Inf'^*""^ opposed to industry. Accordingly, the ar- 
tisans only work when they are driven to 
do so by necessity, and then they take their ease until they 
have spent their earnings; this is the reason why manual labor 
is so dear. The meanest cultivators of the soil have the same 
habit. . . . Aside from a few grandees of the kingdom who 
display great luxury, it must be remembered that the rest of 
the people live at home in utmost straits, and if they have a 
little to spend they put it all on their backs or in purchasing a 
mule, thus making a great show before the world when they 
have scarce anything at home, where they exercise an economy 
truly astonishing." Although they live on very little, yet 
they are by no means free from cupidity, and are in fact very 
avaricious; and not having anything in the way of the arts to 
rely upon, they are driven to robbing and plundering. The re- 
ligion of the Spaniard, according to Guicciardini, is extremely 
superficial. Outwardly they seem very religious but inwardly 
have little. "They have infinite ceremonies, which they per- 
form with great exactness, and show much humility in speech, 



20 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

the use of titles, and the kissuig of hands. Everyone is their 
lord, everyone may command them; but this means little, and 
you can place no faith in them," Such was the Spaniard at the 
beginning of the sixteenth century, as seen by a contemporary. 
When the Spaniard came to America he came with three 
chief motives: (1) He was hungry for adventure. The closing 
of the wars with the Moors had thrown many Spanish knights 
out of employment, but the opening of America was to them a 
door of hope, a new field for the exercise of arms, and the pros- 
pects of new conquests appealed to them as a golden oppor- 
tunity. (2) He came with a sincere desire to spread the Cath- 
olic faith, and in the midst of all his various activities in Amer- 
ica he never lost sight of his religious program; with hardly an 
exception, priests accompanied every expedition, and no op- 
portunity was neglected of establishing Christian worship 
among the natives. (3) He came searching for wealth. In- 
finitely poor, and having no means of gaining wealth at home, 
the Spanish knight came to the New World for gold, and his 
desire was insatiable. These three motives explain practically 
every act of the Spaniard in America. 

READING REFERENCES 

For further reading the following books will be found helpful: 

Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. I, by Justin Winsor. 

Four volumes from the Story of the Nations Series: Spain, by Edward 
E. Hale and Siisan Hale; The Moors, in Spain, by Stanley Lane-Poole; The 
Christian Recovery of Spain, by Henry Edward Watts; The Story of Por- 
tugal, by H. Morse Stephens (New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1901). 

European Background of American History, by E. P. Cheyney (Harpers, 
1904) . Chapter V discusses the Spanish Monarchy at the time of Colmnbus. 

A History of the Inquisition in Spain, by H. C. Lea (The MacmiUan 
Company). Vol. I, Chapters I-IV, is the best account of the growth of 
intolerance in Spain. A more detailed history of Spain is Burk's History 
of Spain, edited by Martin A. S. Hume (Longmans, Green, 1900). 

In the American Historical Association Reports for 1893, pp. 125-133, 
will be found an article on "Economic Conditions of Spain in the Sixteenth 
Century," by Bernard Moses. 

Fortunately for the student of Latin American affairs, the two volumes 
of Professor R. B. Merriman on The Rise of the Spanish Empire (The 
MacmiUan Company, 1918) have appeared. Vol. I treats of Spain in the 
Middle Ages, while Vol. II discusses the reigns of the Catholic kings. 



CHAPTER II 

PHYSICAL ASPECTS AND NATIVE RACES OF 
LATIN AMERICA 

I. Physical Aspects 
Latin America, including South America, Central America, 
and the Spanish West Indies, covers an area of more than 
8,000,000 square miles. The approximate area of Mexico and 
the Central American states is 1,000,000 square miles, while 
the area of the Spanish West Indies is nearly 100,000 square 
miles, leaving for South America proper an area of over 7,000,- 
000 square miles. The greatest breadth of South America is 
3,500 miles, and its greatest length 4,600 miles, while the dis- 
tance from the northern boundary of Mexico to the extreme 
southern boundary of Chile is nearly 7,000 miles. Latin America 
occupies more than half the area of the American continents, 
and the largest Latin American state, Brazil, is larger than the 
United States, without Alaska, and larger than all Europe 
without Russia. When we glance at the dimensions of the 
countries covering the continent and compare them with 

others with which we are more familiar, we 
America^***" ^^^ perhaps get a better idea of the size of 

the territory occupied by Latin America. 
The little new Republic of Panama is larger than two Switzer- 
lands, Switzerland having an area of 15,976 square miles, while 
Panama has 33,000 square miles. Uruguay, the smallest of 
the republics in South America proper, has an area of 72,210 
square miles, which is larger than England, and is over 3,000 
square miles larger than the six New England States. The 
republics of Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru range 
from 364,000 to 695,733 square miles, the smallest of them 
being larger than France and Spain combined. Argentina, 
with an area of 1,135,840 square miles, is larger than the United 
States east of the Mississippi River. If we should lay Argentina 
upon the continent of North America, it would reach from the 
southern tip of Florida to northern Labrador. 

21 



22 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

From the standpoint of land relief South America proper 
may be divided into four divisions: (1) the great Andean 
Mountain chain, which is the most striking feature of the con- 
tinent, with the narrow plain lying between it and the Pacific 
Ocean; (2) the great plateau of Brazil, with the two coastal 
mountain ranges, spreading westward and northward to the 
heart of the continent; (3) the highlands of Guiana and Vene- 
zuela between the Orinoco and the mouth of the Amazon; 
and (4) the lowlands that spread out along the three main lines 
of continental drainage, namely, the Orinoco, the Amazon, and 
the Paraguay basins. 

Everything in South America is on a grand scale. The 
mountains are the highest in the western hemisphere. From 
Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama, the great Cordillera 
follows the coast line closely. The coastal plain between the 
mountains and the sea has an average width of forty miles, 
and when the weather is favorable the mountains are visible 
to passengers on ocean steamers all the way from the Straits 
of Magellan to Panama. South of the forty-first degree south 
latitude, the coast is characterized by a vast number of is- 
lands, "probably produced by the recent submergence of a 
mountain system and the consequent invasion of its steep- 
sided valleys by the ocean." The islands along the coast are 
but the high portion of these mountains which remain above 
water. North of the forty-first degree the coast is but little 
indented, and there are few harbors. From 
L^d^^c^sS^Kain ^bout thirty degrees south to Guayaquil the 
coast is sandy, arid, and barren, and is one 
of the dryest portions of the earth. The streams which flow 
from the mountains are short, and many of the smaller ones 
do not reach the sea, but are lost in the sands of the desert. 
From Guayaquil to Panama the coast is covered with a tropical 
vegetation. 

The Andean range is about 4,400 miles long. In the south- 
em part there is but a single range; from northern Argentina 
through the central part there are two ranges, while in the 
north there are three. Upon the Cordilleran ridge rise some of 
the highest peaks in the world, though various authorities 



PHYSICAL ASPECTS AND NATIVE RACES 23 

differ in their estimates of their elevations. The highest of 
these peaks is Aconcagua, in Argentina, which rises to the 
great height of over 23,000 feet, 9,000 feet higher than the 
highest mountain in the United States. There are sixteen 
. „ , known peaks scattered along the range, in 

Mountain Peaks ,-n -i 

Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Co- 
lombia, ranging from over 15,000 feet to 23,000. Cotopaxi, Tun- 
guragua, Maipo, and Sangai are the highest active volcanoes 
in the world. Many glaciers are found in the Andes, even under 
the equator itself, the largest glaciers being found in the south- 
ern part, their streams emptying into the Straits of Magellan. 

The eastern side of the continent is very different from the 
western side. The country from the Straits of Magellan to the 
southern part of Brazil is flat, and is called the La Plata pam- 
pas. It is much like the plains in the central part of the United 
States, with rich alluvial soil, and largely destitute of timber. 
In the north there are abundant grasses, suitable for pasturing 
cattle, but at the south vegetation is stunted, due to the dry 
climate. Between the valleys of the La Plata and the Amazon 
is a great plateau bordered by the range of mountains called 

the Serro do Mar. In many places these 
the^ Continent ' ^ ° mountains come down to the coast, giving 

the shore line a most picturesque appearance, 
and here are to be found the best harbors in the continent. 
North of latitude twenty degrees the mountains swing inland, 
and the coast becomes low-lying to the seventeenth degree, 
north of which it is bordered by bluffs, ranging from fifty to 
two hundred and fifty feet high. North of the mouth of the 
Amazon the coast is low-lying and swampy and is covered with 
a dense tropical vegetation. 

The eastern side of the continent is also in great contrast to 
the western in the number and size of the rivers. South Amer- 
ica has three great river systems, namely, the Orinoco, the 
Amazon, and the La Plata. These three great systems drain 
an area of 3,686,400 square miles. The Orinoco is the smallest 
of the largest rivers, but it is 1,450 miles in length, and with 
its tributaries has many miles of navigable waters. The main 
stream, during the most favorable season, is navigable for 1,000 



24 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

miles. The La Plata includes the Parana, the Uruguay, and 
the Paraguay. The streams coming from the arid regions of 
the west are brackish, while those from the rainy, wooded 
region are all fresh streams. The La Plata discharges more 
water into the ocean than does the Mississippi, and is navi- 
gable for ocean-going vessels from 1,200 to 1,300 miles above 
Buenos Ayres, while smaller vessels can go over 2,000 miles 
into the interior. The Amazon, greatest of South American 
rivers, is the largest in the world. This river is navigable for 
3,000 miles, while it is estimated that there are some 30,000 
miles of navigable waterways in the Amazon valley. The 
Amazon is a sluggish stream, nowhere confined to a single 
channel, and spreads over a vast plain. The land along the 
stream is low and marshy, and at times under water. 

Besides these three great river systems, there are several 
other streams of considerable size. The Magdalena in Co- 
lombia is a large river, over two thousand miles long, and is 
navigable for a considerable distance. It is a very muddy, 
crooked stream. The San Francisco lies wholly in Brazil, and 
flows northwestward to latitude nine degrees thirty minutes, 
when it bends sharply to the right and enters the Atlantic. It 
flows through a mountainous country and is only navigable 
for 150 miles in its lower course. There are no large rivers 
Smaller South flowing into the Paclfic, the Bio Bio in cen- 

American Rivers and tral Chile being the largest. Most of the 
lakes in South America are in the mountains, 
and are found in the Andes or near their base. Lake Titicaca, 
in northern Bolivia, is the largest, covering 5,000 square miles, 
and is 12,545 feet above sea level. It has a maximum depth 
of 700 feet and never freezes over. Lake Junin near Lima 
covers an area of 200 square miles, and is over 13,000 feet 
above sea level. In southern Argentina is a series of glacial 
lakes, and in Venezuela is Lake Maracaibo, but it is a bay 
rather than a lake. 

Much of South America lies within the torrid zone, but 
because of high elevations temperate conditions prevail. In 
the western part of the continent a large part of t^he popula- 
tion live at elevations from 7,000 to 10,000 feet. Two thirds 



PHYSICAL ASPECTS AND NATIVE RACES 25 

of South America is within the torrid zone, and one thind in 
the temperate, yet most of the South American capitals have a 
temperate cHmate. Quito lies under the equator, yet with an 
elevation of nearly two miles it has a delightful climate. Dis- 
tricts as large as some European states lie 
at such altitudes as to have a cool and health- 
ful climate and produce grains and other temperate zone plants. 
None of the countries of South America are without large 
temperate zone districts. 

South America has furnished an unusually large number of 
the world's useful plants. Among them are valuable dye woods, 
such as Brazil wood, rubber-producing plants, cotton, the 
potato, tomato, mandioca, pineapple, maize, ipecac, cocoa, the 
chocolate plant, and Paraguayan tea. The Amazon valley is 
covered with a dense growth of tropical plants. The palm in 
many varieties and shapes has its greatest 
development here. Tropical and subtropical 
plants have likewise been introduced into South America, 
such as the banana, sugar cane, orange tree, and coffee plant. 

Most of the surface of Mexico is a great plateau bordered 
on both the east and west by mountains, with a fringe of low 
lands between the plateau and the coast on either side. To 
the extreme south there is a mountainous section, while most 
of the peninsula of Yucatan is a low table land. The great 
central plateau at its greatest elevation is 8,000 feet above 
sea level, while in the northern part the elevation averages 
about 3,500 feet. The mountain chain on the west is known 
as the Sierra Madre Occidental, which consists of several 
parallel ranges with their own names. The highest elevations 
in this range are the Nevado de Colima (14,363 feet) and the 
Volcan de Colima (12,750 feet). The eastern range is called 
the Sierra Madre Oriental. In the northern part this range is 
low, but south of Tampico it reaches a great elevation, cul- 
minating in such peaks as Orizaba (18,209 feet) and Cofre de 
Perote (13,419 feet). There are several 
Merico°^^^^°^ ranges which cross the plateau, to some of 
which have been given the name of Cor- 
dillera de Anahuac. In the center of the plateau are several 



26 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

snow-capped volcanoes, Popocatepetl (Smoking Mountain) and 
Ixtaccihuatl (White Woman), both of which are over 17,000 
feet high. This part of Mexico is volcanic in character. In 
the center of the plateau, between the sixteenth and twentieth 
degrees, is a great depression, known as the valley of Mexico, 
which formerly contained a series of salt lakes, but now only 
small lakes and marshy lagoons remain. Mexico has no large 
rivers, most of the streams being little more than mountain 
torrents. The largest rivers are the Rio Grande Santiago, 
which rises in the state of Mexico and flows westward into the 
Pacific; the Rio de las Balsas, which rises in Tlaxcala and 
flows southwest into the Pacific; and the Yaqui, which rises 
in the state of Chihuahua and flows westward into the Gulf 
of California. The longest of these rivers is only 540 miles in 
length, and none of them are important as navigable streams. 
Like South America, Mexico has a great variety of climate, 
due to varying elevations. The climate of Mexico is deter- 
mined by vertical zones. The low-lying coast, called the tierras 
calientes, ranging in width from 30 to 40 miles, has a tropical 
temperature. The next zone is the tierra templada, or sub- 
, „ . tropical zone, which rises to an elevation of 

Climate of Mexico i^ . ■ . ^ 

5,577 leet and embraces a territory from 50 
to 100 miles broad on both sides of the country. Above this is 
the tierra fria, which includes the highest portions of the 
plateau, and has a temperature corresponding to the tempera- 
ture of the United States. 

The chief physical features of Central America are the 
mountain chains which traverse the country from end to end. 
The mountains are nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic, except 
in Costa Rica and Panama, where they are almost equidistant 
from the two oceans. The mountains are volcanic and there 
are many active craters. The country is mostly covered with 
a dense tropical growth, and for that reason much of it is still 
imperfectly surveyed. The rivers, especially on the Pacific 

side, are little more than mountain torrents, 
cente^A^ericT^ °* though on the Atlantic side the Segovia, in 

Nicaragua and Honduras, has a course 450 
miles in length. There are several mountain lakes, Lake 



PHYSICAL ASPECTS AND NATIVE RACES 27 

Nicaragua, the largest, having an area of 3,500 square miles. 
Like Mexico, the climate of Central America depends upon 
the elevation. British Honduras and Guatemala have a hot 
climate, while Salvador and Costa Rica, due to high elevations, 
have a temperate climate. The rainfall is heavy, ranging from 
50 to 200 inches. 

The West India islands are the summits of submerged moun- 
tain chains, and both Cuba and Haiti are rugged and moun- 
tainous. Cuba has mountains from one end to the other, 
though not continuous. The eastern portion of the island is 
high and rugged, to the west of which are open plains, which 
in turn give way to another rough and broken region; the region 
about Habana is flat and rolling, while the extreme western 
end of the island is again mountainous. Cuba has a great 
number of short streams, the Cauto in the east part of the 
island being the longest. One of the peculiarities of Cuba is 
the great number of caves and caverns, the 
island being largely underlaid with limestone. 
The climate is tropical, with heavy rainfall, though droughts 
of long duration are not imcommon. Haiti is far more rugged 
than Cuba, mountains covering the whole island, reaching al- 
most everywhere to the coast, there being only here and there 
a few strips of beach. There is a central range running from 
east to west, while to the north and south are other ranges. 
Haiti has four fair-sized rivers and several mountain lakes. 
Owing to the more general elevation Haiti has a greater variety 
of climate than the other islands of the group. There is an 
abundant rainfall. 

11. Native Races 

The native races, which the Spaniards and the Portuguese 
found in South and Central America, and in the West Indies, 

may be roughly divided into two classes: 
^"^rica^""*"^**^ (1) the naked savages, who were found on 

the islands and east of the Andes in South 
America; (2) the semicivilized Indians, inhabiting the territory 
west of the Andes in South America, such as the Peruvians, in 
the highlands of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, and the Mayas 
of Yucatan, and the Aztecs in Mexico. 



28 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The savages whom Columbus and his successors found upon 
the islands of Haiti and Cuba were a mild race, described by 
the Spaniards as feeble in intellect and also physically defec- 
tive. The number of Indians on the islands at the coming of 
the Spaniards has been doubtless greatly exaggerated, though 

The Native Population *^®^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ Considerable popula- 
on the Islands Haiti tiou. These people livcd in rude huts, and 
^ " ^ practiced a limited and extremely primitive 

agriculture. The island Indians were soon exterminated by 
the Spaniards and there is hardly a trace of them remaining. 
Little has been done in the way of archaeological study, and 
nothing of the language or traditions of the aborigines has 
survived. 

The chief tribes inhabiting South America east of the Andes 
were the Caribs in the north, in what is now Venezuela; the 
Arawaks, occupying the Guianas; the Tupi Indians, found in 
Brazil along the Amazon valley; and the Pampas Indians, in 
Argentina. The Caribs were a fierce, warlike race, and stoutly 
resisted the Spaniards. They were cannibals, and for that 
reason were terrifying to the earliest explorers, along the 
northern coast of South America. The Caribs were also found 
in some of the smaller islands of the West India group. The 
Arawaks were much milder than the Caribs. They were peace- 
ful agriculturists, and were the most civilized of all the races 
found in northeastern South America, being weavers of cloth 
and workers in metals. The most important of the Amazon 
The Native Races in ^^i^es Were the Tupi. These tribes covered 
Eastern South the territory from the Amazon to the south- 

ern part of what is now Brazil, and made 
up perhaps the most numerous race. The Pampas Indians 
were those tribes inhabiting the great plains of Argentina. 
These Indians were divided into many different tribes, though 
they possessed common characteristics. They were warlike, 
and the hostility of the tribes living at the mouth of the Rio 
de La Plata was one of the chief reasons why the Spaniards 
were unsuccessful in their first three attempts to establish 
Buenos Ayres. 

The Araucanians composed a group of tribes living in south- 



PHYSICAL ASPECTS AND NATIVE RACES 29 

em Chile. They were an extremely warlike and brave people, 
and their long wars with the Spaniards, in which they were 
never completely conquered, have given them a distinction be- 
yond that of any other group of natives. Their form of gov- 
ernment was a military aristocracy. They followed agricul- 
ture, built houses, though as a whole they remained cruel 
savages. North of the Araucanians lived 'the 
andPeru^^" ^ Indians of Peru and BoHvia, to whom the 
term "Incas" is generally applied, though the 
two chief tribes were the Quichuas of Peru, and the Aymards 
of Bolivia. In Ecuador were the Caras, while in Colombia 
lived the Chibchas. All of these people had reached a high 
state of civilization, though it is generally conceded that the 
Incas of Peru had developed to the highest degree. 

The capital of the Inca kingdom was at Cuzco, north of Lake 
Titicaca, Lake Titicaca being the primitive center of the civili- 
zation of this region. The Incas developed a strong govern- 
ment of a paternal character, and a highly intensive agriculture, 
building terraces up the mountain sides, and using fertilizers 
and irrigation. They were the only people in America to do- 
mesticate a beast of burden, the llama, which they employed 
not only as a beast of burden but also for food. They raised 
potatoes, maize, and cotton; they obtained fine wool from the 
alpaca, which they wove into cloth and blankets. They were 
also skillful workers in metals, which they used for ornaments 
and utensils, but not for a medium of ex- 
tt^e'iSJlf' *'°''°' change. They erected huge buildings, put- 
ting the stones together without mortar, 
cutting them to fit so accurately that even yet, in the finest 
examples of their stone work, a knife blade cannot be inserted 
in the crevices. These remarkable people also constructed 
roads, the remains of which are still visible. At the time the 
Spaniards came to America the Inca kingdom extended from 
the northern boundary of the preselit Republic of Ecuador to 
the center of Chile, a distance of nearly three thousand miles. 
This was by far the largest single kingdom developed among 
the native races in America. 

Inhabiting what is now Colombia were the Chibchas, a peo- 



30 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

pie almost as far along in civilization as the natives of Peru. 
They were skillful weavers of cloth and were adept as potters. 
They lived in houses and erected great temples. They too had 

carried agriculture to a high degree of suc- 
coiombL*^ ^ ° ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ under an absolute government 

which severely punished crime. The Chib- 
chas are credited with a system of weights and measures and a 
currency in the form of gold disks. Like the Aymaras and the 
Quichuas, they were skilled workers in the precious metals, which 
they wrought into ornaments for personal adornment and for 
use in their temples. 

The chief inhabitants of Central America and Mexico, at 
the coming of the Spaniards, were the Aztecs of Mexico and 
the Mayas of Central America and Yucatan. There has been 
discovered in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Honduras the ruins of 
several ancient cities, which are said to be of greater extent 
and superior in every way to any of the ruins to be found in 
Mexico. At the time the Spaniards came most of these cities 

were abandoned, but they give undoubted 
centraf^erica evidence that there once existed in Central 

America a highly developed empire. At the 
time of the coming of the Spaniards the tribes in Yucatan 
were found to be hostile and skilled warriors, and gave 
the discoverers much trouble. They wore clothing made 
of cotton and, like the Aztecs, had developed a form of 
picture-writing. Mr. Bancroft thinks that the Maya civ- 
ilization was much older than that of Mexico, and that 
Central America was the most ancient home of civilization in 
America. 

The most remarkable civilization with which the Spaniards 
came in contact was that of the confederated tribes in Mexico, 
under their emperor Montezuma. The valley of Mexico was 
the seat, however, of a much more ancient civilization than 
that which the Spaniards found. It is supposed that in the 
sixth century a tribe, known as the Toltecs, built up a civiliza- 
tion in the valley. In the eleventh century the Toltecs were 
driven out by a ruder people, who occupied the territory for a 
time, but were finally conquered by the tribe we know as the 



PHYSICAL ASPECTS AND NATIVE RACES 31 

Aztecs. When the Spaniards came into Mexico the Aztecs had 
. been in control of the valley for about two 
hundred years. The Aztecs were skilled agri- 
culturists, cultivating a great variety of crops; they lived in 
well-built cities, some of which impressed the Spaniards as 
more beautiful than many in Spain. The capital of the empire 
was the City of Mexico, located in the largest of the salt lakes, 
in the valley, and was a most wonderful city from the stand- 
point of both size and beauty, if we can trust the reports of the 
Spanish conquerors. There were a well-ordered government, a 
judicial system, almost modern in its organization, and written 
laws. The religion of the Aztecs, however, was very repulsive 
to the Spaniards, because of the prevalence of human sacrifice, 
though in other respects it compared favorably with some of 
the higher forms of religion. 

READING REFERENCES 

For further reading on the geography of Latin America: Stanford's 
Compendium of Geography and Travel: Central and South America, by 
A. H. Keane (2 vols., Lippincott), will be found most valuable. 

The best present-day description of South American Geography, by a 
trained traveler and observer, is South America: Observations and Im- 
pressions, by James Bryce (The Macmillan Company). 

Most of the popular books on South America devote considerable 
space to description and geography, such as The Republics of Central and 
South America, by C. Reginald Enock (Charles Scribner's Sons). 

The article in the Encyclopcedia Britannica (11th Ed.) is a good brief 
account of South American geography. 

The fullest discussion of the native races in Mexico and Central America 
will be found in Native Races of the Pacific States, by H. H. Bancroft, 5 vols. 
(1874-1876). 

In History of the Conquest of Mexico, by William H. Prescott, Vol. I 
(New York, 1852), will be found an elaborate description of Mexican 
civilization; The Conquest of Peru, Vol. I, Book I, by the same author, 
contains a similar discussion of the civilization of the Incas. Yucatan, by 
J. L. Stephens (New York, 1843), is an old but reliable account of the 
archaeological remains of Central America. Other books dealing with the 
native races are Central American and West Indian Archaeology, by T. A. 
Joyce (1916); also by the same author Mexican Archceology (1914); and 
South American Archceology (1912). 



CHAPTER III 

PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION IN 
AMERICA 

Back of the discovery of America lies a long period in which 
the people of western Europe were gradually becoming better 
acquainted with the world immediately about them, and during 
which travelers and explorers were busy acquiring skill and 
experience for larger and more important discoveries. The 
first government to undertake exploration was that of the little 
country of Portugal. Portugal from the thirteenth century 
had been interested in trade and commerce. 
European State to For many years her ports had had direct 
Become Interested in commercial relations with Flanders, and 
by the middle of the fourteenth century 
fleets from Venice made regular voyages to Lisbon. Thus 
Portugal became interested in the products of the east, and 
when in 1263 she succeeded in conquering the little Moorish 
kingdom of Algarves, situated in what is now the southern part 
of Portugal, she was given a southern as well as a western sea- 
coast, which was an added incentive for increasing her Medi- 
terranean trade. The chief reason, however, why Portugal led 
Europe in discovery and exploration was because of the en- 
thusiasm and devotion of one man, who has become known to 
history as Prince Henry the Navigator. 

Prince Henry was the fourth son of King John II of Portugal. 
As a young man he had taken part in an expedition against the 
Moors in Africa, and from this experience his interest in the 
continent to the south of Portugal began. In the year 1419 he 
estabhshed his residence on the rock of Sagres, the extreme 
southwestern extension of Europe, and there for a period of 
forty years he devoted his energj^ to the task of finding a way 
around Africa. He had no family, and the income from his 
estates was lavished on this project to which he had dedicated 

32 



PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 33 

his life. Upon this barren rock he built an observatory, the first 
his country had seen, and here he gathered 
Henry the Navigator about him Seamen and adventurers, and a 
school of navigation and mapmaking was 
established. From 1420 to the year of his death in 1460 this 
Portuguese prince sent out voyage after voyage to the south- 
ward. During the first ten years of his endeavor the Madeiras 
and th&^^ores were rediscovered, and their permanent coloni- 
zation begun. It took twenty-five years for the sailors of the 
prince to get as far south as Cape Verde, which was finally 
reached in 1445 by Fernandez Diaz. In successive years 
other voyages reached farther and farther southward, but the 
prince died before he had accomplished the circimmavigation 
of Africa. Fortunately, his work did not cease with his death, 
for the adventurous navigators he had trained continued their 
voyaging, supported by the Portuguese king. Finally, in 1486, 
Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Capes of Africa, and ten years 
later Vasco da Gama, the greatest of all the Portuguese navi- 
gators, sailed aroimd Africa to India, and returned with a 
cargo of spices, which we are told brought sixty times over the 
cost of the expedition. In the meantime a brisk trade was 
springing up on the west coast of Africa and Portuguese mis- 
sionaries were being sent to the Congo. 

Thus for considerably over a half century Portugal was 
active in discovery and navigation before Spain entered the 
field. It was, in fact, these voyages of the Portuguese navi- 
gators that led Columbus to think of sailing westward to find 
a new route to the Indies. "It was in Portugal that the Admiral 
began to surmise that if men could sail so far south, one might 
also sail west and find lands in that direction," said Ferdinand 
Columbus, who was the first biographer of his father. In 1470 
Columbus, a native of Genoa, was attracted to Lisbon, then 
the great center of maritime adventure. Before this, however, 
Columbus had been interested in discovery, having been con- 
nected with ships and affairs of the sea since 
on cohmbus °'^"^^ ^i® early boyhood. It is quite certain that he 
had made several voyages of discovery pre- 
vious to the great voyage. He had visited the Madeira and 



34 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Canary Islands, and had gone on a voyage around the African 
coast. He had also been an eager student of books of travel, 
which were beginning to become quite numerous, and his copy 
of Marco Polo's travels may still be seen, giving proof of his 
interest by its marginal jottings and thumb marks. Columbus 
appealed to the Portuguese king for help in an imdertaking to 
find the way to the Indies by sailing westward, but the Por- 
tuguese were so engrossed in their interest in finding the way 
around Africa that Columbus was not able to gain the assistance 
he sought. He was received kindly by the Portuguese king, 
however, and a council of scientific men was called to consider 
the plan, though they pronounced it visionary. But in spite 
of this, the Portuguese sought to anticipate Columbus, and we 
are told that a ship was sent westward, which received the in- 
struction to follow the plan outlined by Columbus. The sailors, 
however, not having their hearts in the matter, failed to sail 
far enough westward. 

Columbus next tried to interest the Genoese government in 
his plan, but without success. It was after these rebuffs that 
he set out for Spain, arriving there in 1485. Ferdinand and 
Isabella were then engaged in the conquest of Granada, and were 
with their army at Cordoba. Here Columbus presented him- 
self to the Queen's chaplain, to whom a kindly abbot had given 
him letters of introduction, but the cleric received him coldly 
and refused to present him to the queen. And it is little to be 
wondered at that Columbus was refused an audience with the 
monarchs of Spain, for he was only a humble sailor, picking up 
a living as he went from place to place drawing maps and 
charts. The greatest wonder is that he ever succeeded in pre- 
senting his plan. In the fall of 1485, however, he secured an 
audience with Ferdinand, who was so impressed that he called 
a council of scholars to consider it. After looking into the 
scheme, these so-called scholars declared the 
HeS'g"L^p*lta views of Columbus "unphilosophical and, 

worst of all, unscriptural," and, further, that 
"it was false and heretical to assume that land could be found 
by sailing west from Europe"; moreover, they wisely stated 
"that Columbus after he had descended the hemisphere would 



PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 35 

not be able to ascend again, for it would be like getting up a 
mountain," While this decision discouraged Columbus, he 
did not give up hope. The fact that his plan had been discussed 
by a council of scholars served to give it considerable publicity, 
and, staying close to the court, he accompanied the Spanish 
army to the siege of Malaga in 1487. The next year Columbus 
dispatched his brother Bartholomew to lay his plan before King 
Henry VII of England, but unfortunately, he fell among pirates 
in the channel. Although Henry VII was favorable to the 
plan, Bartholomew was not able to bring this good news to his 
brother until Columbus had started upon his famous voyage. 

In 1489 Columbus had become completely discouraged and 
determined to try his fortune in France. Stopping to visit his 
little son Diego, at a monastery near Palos, the prior, who had 
formerly been queen's chaplain, learning of his intention to 
quit Spain for France, wrote to the queen urging her to accept 
the scheme of the navigator. So impressed was Isabella by the 
letter of her former chaplain that she at once sununoned Co- 
lumbus to the court, and he was at last taken under the royal 
protection. Columbus arrived in Granada just in time to see 
the last of the Moorish banners torn from the Alhambra and the 
united flag of Ferdinand and Isabella unfurled, and it was 
, ^ „ amid such strange surroundings as these that 

Queen Isabella in 

Promises to Send he first presented himself to the good queen. 
Columbus on His jj^ asked for ships and sailors, that he be 

ffiroyage 

made admiral of all new discoveries, and that 
he be given "a tenth of all spices, precious stones, precious 
metals found or bought or sold within the bounds of his dis- 
coveries." These demands the queen thought absurd, as they 
imdoubtedly were, and once more Columbus was sent away. 
By this time, however, influential members of the court had been 
won over to his side, and on their intervention he was again 
summoned before the queen. At last she promised to grant 
him all things necessary for his voyage, even if it were necessary 
for her to give her jewels in pledge. 

The agreement between the monarchs and Columbus was 
signed April 17, 1492, and immediately he began preparation 
at the port of Palos for his famous voyage. The three vessels 



36 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

which Palos annually furnished to the crown were placed at 
the disposal of the admiral, and funds were advanced from the 
ecclesiastical revenues of the crown of Aragon. The Pinzon 
brothers, rich and skillful mariners of Palos, joined Columbus 
in his undertaking. Three vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, 
and the Nina, were made ready, and ninety sailors were secured 
by proclamation offering immunity from civil and criminal 
process. The voyage started at sunrise, August 3, 1492, but 
before starting the crews gathered at the church and partook 
of the sacrament. Finally all was ready, and the course was 
Preparations for the directed toward the Canary Islands, which 
Voyage, and the were reached in seven days. Here they were 

Voyage detained three weeks by a broken rudder on 

the Pinta. Again they set sail, and farther and farther they 
penetrated into the unknown sea, while the crews became more 
and more alarmed and mutiny was never very far away. Now 
and again by the end of September they began to see flocks of 
land birds, then some sea weeds floating, and finally a branch 
of a tree with leaves and berries fresh upon it. Then the 
morning of the twelfth of October dawned, and behold before 
them lay a shore, and as they drew nearer crowds of friendly 
natives were seen. Soon a landing was accomplished, and the 
pious Columbus took possession of the new-found land in the 
name of the Catholic monarchs of Spain. Our knowledge of 
this first voyage is based upon the extracts of the journal of 
Columbus, which were copied by the first historian of the 
Indies, Las Casas, but the journal itself is lost. On his return 
Columbus wrote two letters to friends describing the voyage, 
and these letters furnish another important source. 

The island which Columbus first sighted was named San 
Salvador, Holy Saviour, and was in the Bahama group, though 
its identity has been lost. The admiral was much disappointed 
in not finding gold among the natives, for when he exhibited 
samples of gold and pearls the simple natives only shook their 
heads. He left San Salvador on October 14, and sailed south- 
ward, passing several small islands, and finally reached the 
north shore of Cuba. As they coasted along the shore of 
Cuba, Columbus came to the conclusion that they had found 



PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 37 

the mainland of Asia. For two days he skirted the island in a 

southeasterly direction, and came finally to 
nIZT ^°"°**' ^^ t^e island of Haiti, which Columbus thought 

was Japan. On Christmas day the largest 
vessel, the Santa Maria, was wrecked, though the crew was 
safely transferred to the Nina, The Pinta had previously 
deserted the admiral, and Columbus feared that her captain, 
one of the Pinzons, had returned to Spain to reap the benefit 
of the discovery. Before starting on the return voyage Colum- 
bus determined to leave some of the men on the island, for the 
Nina was now much overcrowded. Accordingly, houses and 
a fortress were erected, the natives aiding in the work, and 
thirty-nine men were selected to form this temporary colony, 
which received the name of La Navidad, in honor of the escape 
from the wreck, on Christmas day. 

On January 4, 1493, the return voyage was begun, and two 
days later Columbus overtook the Pinta. After a stormy 
passage, during which the vessels were twice in danger of 
shipwreck, the Azores were at last sighted on February 15. 
Here they received a very ungracious reception from the 
Portuguese governor. Leaving the Azores, they ran into 
another storm, in which the vessels were again separated, and 

finally the Nina was compelled to take refuge 
Coiumbus°°* in the river Tagus. Here Columbus came 

once more in contact with the Portuguese, 
but this time he was well received, invited to the court, and 
made much of. A few days later the little Nina sailed into the 
harbor of Palos; the people at once recognized the vessel, and 
immediately all trade was stopped, bells were rung, and when 
night came the streets were brilliantly illuminated in honor of 
the great admiral. 

As soon as the monarchs learned of the return of Columbus 
they summoned him to the court at Barcelona, where he was 
given great honor, being directed to seat himself in their 
presence, an honor usually bestowed only upon royalty. 
When the monarchs had received Columbus they immediately 
sent messengers to the pope, Alexander VI, who was himself a 
Spaniard, a native of Valencia in Aragon, and requested that 



38 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

he grant them the Indies, just discovered. Accordingly, on 
May 3, 1493, the pope issued a bull conferring upon the Spanish 
sovereigns all lands discovered and hereafter to be discovered 
in the western ocean. In this famous document the pope 
states that he has done this "Out of our pure liberahty, certain 

knowledge, and plenitude of apostolic 
De'nSor"' power," and "by virtue of the authority of 

onmipotent God granted to us in Saint Peter 
and of the Vicarship of Jesus Christ, which we administer upon 
the earth." On the following day another bull was issued 
fixing a line of demarcation dividing the Spanish and Portu- 
guese possessions. This line was drawn one hundred leagues 
west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. The first demarca- 
tion line, however, did not satisfy Portugal, and in the year 
1494 a treaty was signed between Spain and Portugal moving 
the line to three hundred and seven leagues west of the Cape 
Verde Islands. The changing of the original line had far-reaching 
influence, for the new line touched the coast of South America, 
and Portugal was thus given a claim on Brazil. 

Immediately there was organized a special department of 
Indian Affairs, with headquarters at Seville, and the Archbishop 
of Seville was placed in charge. A special Indian customhouse 
was built at Cadiz; the famous system of colonial control thus 
begun was to continue for more than three hundred yeais. 

Provision for missionary work among the 

Department of Indian tt ti • • j.j/~^i i- 

Affairs EstabUshed Indians was likewise inaugurated, Columbus 
having brought back from the Indies six 
Indians, who were soon baptized, the king and queen standing 
as godfather and godmother for them. These Indians were to 
be taught the Spanish tongue and were to serve as interpreters 
for the priests. A certain Bernardo Boyle was made the 
pope's vicar, for the carrying on of this work. 

The second voyage of Columbus was primarily a colonizing 
expedition. In the summer of 1493 fourteen ships for passengers 
and three for stores were prepared. When the expedition sailed 
on September 23, there were some fifteen hundred persons on 
board, among them many hidalgos, and such stores as cattle, 
vines, horses and other things considered necessary to the 




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PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 39 

founding of a colony. This voyage went also by way of the 
Canaries, and thence by a straight course to the West Indies, 
The Second Voyage finally sighting the island of Dominica in the 
of Columbus, and the Lesser Antilles, on November 3. Sailing 
panis oony ^hrough the Smaller islands of this group, 
Columbus found and named several, among them being Guade- 
loupe and Antigua, and arrived on the north shore of Hispaniola 
on November 27. On reaching the site of La Navidad, no 
trace of the thirty-nine men who had made up the colony 
could be found, though they found chests broken open, and 
finally nine corpses buried near the fortress. Later Columbus 
learned that the Spaniards had quarreled among themselves 
and had mistreated the Indians. Eventually a fierce Indian 
chief had attacked them and wiped them out of existence, a 
fate, no doubt, which they richly deserved. 

Columbus now proceeded to choose another site for a colony, 
and fixed upon a place some thirty miles east of La Navidad; 
there he built a town, naming it Isabella, in honor of his royal 
patroness, the good Spanish queen. When this had been 
completed, Colmnbus left his brother Diego in charge of the 
colony while he went on an exploring voyage among the islands 
of the Greater Antilles. In this voyage he sailed westward 
along the northern shore of Hispaniola until the east end of the 
island of Cuba was reached. Then, striking the south shore of 
Cuba, he circumnavigated the Isle of Pines, and then returned 
by way of the island of Jamaica and the south shore of His- 
paniola. On his return Columbus set about to rule the colony. 
During his absence things had gone badly. The proud hidalgos 
„ ^. ,, , . were unwilling to be governed by these for- 

Foundmg of Isabella . ^ /^ ^ i i i , 

eigners from Genoa, boon the other brother, 
Bartholomew, who some five years previously had gone on the 
errand to England, arrived in Isabella with several ships loaded 
with supplies for the colony. He was at once made adelantado, 
or military governor. Fonseca, the head of the new department 
of Indian affairs in Spain, had become hostile to Columbus and 
welcomed every tale which came to his ears that was to th« 
admiral's discredit. Indian wars broke out, greatly adding to 
the diflSculties. The crisis came when the two priests headed 



40 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

a company of discontented colonists, seized the ships in which 
Bartholomew had come, and departed for Spain. Finally 
feeling that it was necessary to return to Spain, to present his 
own side of the colonial situation to the sovereigns, Columbus 
set sail from Hispaniola in the spring of 1496, arriving in Cadiz 
in June. 

When the admiral reached Spain he was kindly received by 
the Catholic monarchs and no mention was made of the com- 
plaints that had been made against him. In May, 1498, a 
third expedition set sail under the command of Columbus. He 
sailed from the little port of San Lucar de Barrameda on May 
30, with six vessels. Three of the ships went immediately to 
the colony, while Columbus with the other three sailed south- 
ward to the Cape Verde Islands, then straight westward until 
the island of Trinidad, off the mouth of the Orinoco, was 
sighted. This island the pious Columbus named Trinidad 
because of the three mountain peaks of the island. In the 
voyage the admiral was searching for the Straits of Malacca, 
for he still thought he had found Asia in Cuba, and he desired 

to find the way through to the Spice Islands. 
Columbus °^^^^ ° He coasted along the north shore of South 

America, sailed into the mouth of the great 
river Orinoco, found some fine pearls, and then, Columbus 
being overtaken by a strange stupor, the expedition sailed 
straight for the colony. Here everything was in a most de- 
plorable condition. An insurrection among the colonists had 
been started, which was followed by an Indian uprising, and 
Bartholomew, the governor, instead of punishing the rebels, 
had made terms with them. At this Juncture the admiral 
made his greatest mistake in sending to Spain a cargo of six 
hundred Indian slaves. This greatly angered the queen, who 
looked upon the Indians as the special wards of the crown. 
When the slaves reached Spain they were at once sent back to 
the Indies. 

This slave venture of Columbus probably decided the sov- 
ereigns to investigate affairs in the colony. Accordingly, a 
special agent, in the person of a certain Bobadilla, was sent 
out from Spain with instructions to punish offenders and 



PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 41 

receive from Columbus and his brothers all fortresses and other 
property belonging to the government. This was not to be 
done, however, unless in case of extreme necessity. But no 
sooner had Bobadilla arrived in the colony than he caused the 
arrest of Columbus and his brothers without making the slightest 
investigation. The accusations against Columbus were that 
he had made sick men work; had starved them; had whipped 
these starving men for petty stealing; and, finally, had treated 
Arrest of Columbus ^^^ Indians cruelly, expressly against the 
and His Return to quecu's Command. Heavy chains were 
'**^ *° "^^ placed upon Columbus — treatment which cut 

his sensitive nature to the quick. With this cruel and dis- 
graceful treatment the administration of Columbus in this first 
Spanish colony came to a sad end. Everything considered, 
the sovereigns were not far wrong in removing Columbus, 
though, as Fiske suggests, it might have been done in a less 
brutal way. Columbus was a dreamer rather than an adminis- 
trator, and his reputation would perhaps have been even greater 
if he had never attempted the government of this first colony. 

On the arrival of the great explorer in Spain, orders were at 
once issued that he should be released from his chains, and he 
was promised reimbursement for all his losses, a promise, 
however, which was never fulfilled. The sovereigns also were 
magnanimous enough not to take any notice of the accusations 
which were brought against him. Since the last voyage of 
Columbus, Da Gama had made his great voyage aroimd Africa, 
and had returned with his rich cargo. This inspired the Spanish 
sovereigns to send Columbus upon his fourth and last voyage, 
in an attempt to find a way to the rich Spice Islands. This 
last expedition consisted of four small vessels, and set sail from 
Cadiz on May 11, 1502. The admiral had orders not to land 
at the colony in Hispaniola, but a disabled ship led him to dis- 
obey the command and he attempted a landing at Isabella. 
He was ordered to leave at once, which he accordingly did in 

the teeth of a storm, though his ships found 
CoillSriIo2-fJo4^ safety near by. In this voyage Columbus 

explored the east coast of Central America, 
naming Cape Gracias d Dios, was told by the natives of a 



42 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

"narrow place," which he interpreted as meaning a strait, and 
followed the coast to about the eastern end of the Panama 
Canal. Here he decided to found a colony, but after remaining 
three months they were driven to sea by famine and misery. 
One hardship followed another in rapid succession. The ships 
were wrecked upon the shore of the island of Jamaica, and here 
Columbus and his men were compelled to remain for a year, 
enduring in the meantime terrible suffering from hunger and 
disease. Finally, after long delay, they were rescued by an 
expedition sent out by Ovando, the governor of Hispaniola, 
and Columbus reached Spain in November, 1504. The days 
of his glory were passed, and honor no longer awaited his return 
to Spain, for the good queen was upon her deathbed, and it was 
not long until the disappointed and heart-broken admiral 
followed her to the grave. Columbus died without knowing 
that he had discovered a new world. 

As the news of the discoveries of Columbus and Da Gama 
and the other early navigators became more widely known, 
other Portuguese and Spaniards began to plan voyages of dis- 
covery. Between 1500 and 1520 no less than twenty expedi- 
tions sailed out of Spanish and Portuguese ports, or from the 
ports of the islands. In 1500 an expedition under the command 
of Ojeda and La Cosa with Amerigo Vespucci, sailed to the 
north coasts of South America, following more or less the same 
course pursued by Columbus in his third voyage. In the same 
year Vincente Pinzon also made a voyage to the northeast coast 
of Brazil. Lepe, another Spanish navigator, went as far as 
ten degrees south latitude along the Brazilian coasts. Cabral, 
a Portuguese, in attempting to sail around Africa, was driven 
by a storm upon the coast of Brazil, and sailing along the coast 
to the sixteenth degree south latitude, took possession of the 
country in the name of his king. Two Spanish navigators, 

Bastidas and La Cosa, from October, 1500, 
lZZ%^'Z7s2o to September, 1502, sailed along the northern 

coast of South America and the Isthmus of 
Panama. In the same year a Portuguese, Nuno Manuel, 
explored the Brazilian coast to the thirty-fourth degree south 
latitude, and discovered the island of Georgia. Two other 



PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 43 

Portuguese ships sailed to the BraziUan coast between 1503 
and 1504, while two Spanish voyages were made between 1507 
and 1509, to the same region. In 1508 Ocampo circumnavi- 
gated Cuba, thus disproving the belief held by Columbus that 
it was a part of Asia. In 1513 Ponce de Leon explored the 
coasts of Florida, while in the same year Balboa crossed the 
isthmus and discovered the Pacific. After the discovery of 
the Pacific, navigators realized that there was another western 
ocean to cross before the Spice Islands could be reached, and 
it gradually dawned upon them that it was a new world which 
had been found. 

Between 1517 and 1519 several exploring voyages were sent 
out along the Mexican coast, from the islands of Hispaniola 
and Cuba. The Yucatan peninsula was circumnavigated 
and the general nature of the coast of Central America was 
learned. In 1519 the great Portuguese navigator, Magellan, 
sailing under the flag of Spain, started on his voyage to circum- 
navigate the earth. In the fall of 1520 he sailed through the 
Magellan Straits which bear his name. When he 

Circumnavigates the reached the Philippines, of which he took 

° ® ~ possession in the name of Spain, he was 

killed in a fight with the natives. One of his ships, however, 
finally sailed into the harbor from which it had started nearly 
three years previously. This voyage of Magellan revealed 
the fact that the earth was much larger than had been supposed, 
and from henceforth the Spanish navigators more and more 
turned their attention to America, giving up the search for a 
way through to the East Indies. 

So far the Spanish voyages had not been profitable from the 
standpoint of financial return. In striking contrast were the 
voyages of the Portuguese, which were extremely profitable 
from the first. From the return of Da Gama from his great 
voyage with a rich cargo of spices there began for Portugal a 
Portuguese and pcriod of great prosperity, the greatest in 

Spanish Voyages Portuguese history. Immediately large Por- 

Contrasted tuguese fleets began to go to the East Indies, 

returning with rich cargoes, and Lisbon soon became one of the 
busiest ports in the world. It was not, however, until the gold 



44 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

and silver mines of Mexico and Peru came into Spanish pos- 
session that Spain received any great financial returns from her 
discoveries. 

Among the navigators who went on voyages of discovery 
during these years was an Italian merchant, Amerigo Vespucci. 
He had been sent out to Seville in 1492 by the great Florentine 
mercantile house of the De Medici as their representative. He 
soon became greatly interested in the discoveries that were being 
made by the Spanish and Portuguese navigators. In 1499 this 
Italian agent accompanied an expedition to the north coast of 
South America. It is also known that he went on three other 
voyages, but in every case he was not the chief personage, and 
was never more than of secondary importance. The way in 
which the name of this merchant, Amerigo Vespucci, became 
prominent was as follows: When he returned from these voyages 
he wrote accounts of them in Latin, and in 
Named™^'"^* ^^^ these writings he made himself seem the chief 
personage. These accounts were not only 
read in Spain but throughout Europe. In this way his name 
came to be more intimately connected with the new discoveries 
than even that of Columbus. Vespucci also had called the 
land discovered "Novus Mundus" ("New World"), while Colum- 
bus had simply spoken of it as the Indies. Finally, in 1507, 
three years after the death of Columbus, Waldseemiiller, a profes- 
sor in the college of St. Die, published a geography, and on the 
map of the new land he placed the name "America." Other 
map-makers followed his example, and thus the name became 
permanently attached to the new continents. This was an 
honor which Amerigo Vespucci certainly did not deserve, but, 
strange to say, there were few protests. Even Ferdinand 
Columbus when he wrote the life of his father in 1539 seemed 
to be unaware that the real discoverer had been eclipsed. 

The net result of Spanish and Portuguese voyaging in the 
western ocean between the years 1492 and 1520 was as follows: 
All the larger islands of the West Indies had been discovered, 
their coast lines mapped, and colonies had been planted upon 
them; the eastern coast line of South America down as far 
as the Rio de La Plata was fairly well known both to the 



PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH EXPLORATION 45 

Spanish and Portuguese; the north coast of South America 
, , . „. and the coasts bordering on the Gulf of Mex- 

Results of the First . ° 

Decade of Spanish ICO had been explored, and a colony founded 
and Portuguese qj^ ^]^q Isthmus. The Spanish and Portuguese 

Voyaging . i 

navigators had proved themselves to be both 
hardy and resourceful, and we are now to see what kind of colo- 
nizers they were, as we trace the planting of their colonies upon 
these new found coasts. 

READING REFERENCES 

Perhaps the best extended account of the whole story of Spanish voy- 
aging will be found in Spanish Conquest of America, by Sir Arthur Helps, 
Yski A clear account of the Portuguese discoveries is European Back- 
ground of American History, by E. P. Cheyney, Chapter IV. 

Spain in America (American Nation Series, Vol. II, Harpers, 1904), 
by E. G. Bourne, is the best single-volume account of the Spanish activi- 
ties. A spirited account of both the Spanish and Portuguese discoveries 
will be found in Discovery of America, by John Fiske (Houghton, Mijfflin 
& Co., 1895), Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII. 

The most recent work on Columbus is Christopher Columbus, by John 
Boyd Thacher (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903), 3 vols. 

The Rise of the Spanish Empire, by R. B. Merriman, Vol. II, Chapter 
XVII, is a summary of the Spanish activities in the Indies in the period 
of discovery. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE COLONIZATION OF THE ISLANDS AND THE 
ISTHMUS 

The colonization of Latin America may be considered under 
four divisions: (1) The Colonization of the Islands and the 
Isthmus; (2) The Conquests of Mexico, Peru, 
SonofcSonteatir ^ud Chile; (3) The Founding of the Agricul- 
tural Colonies of Spain : Venezuela, Colombia, 
and La Plata; and (4) The Portuguese Colonization of Brazil. 
We plan to take up these phases in order, devoting a chapter 
to each. The first phase of Latin colonization in the New World 
was the founding of colonies upon the larger islands of the West 
Indies. From the West Indies attempts to found colonies upon 
the mainland of Central and South America followed. After 
this came the conquests of Mexico, Peru, and Chile; the Mexi- 
can conquest proceeded from Cuba; the Peruvian conquest from 
the colony on the mainland, while the conquerors of Chile set 
out from Peru, The third phase of colonization was the plant- 
ing of colonieSv^in the nonmineral-producing sections of South 
America, ^paik cared little about these nonmineral-producing 
colonies and she neglected them throughout the colonial period. 
The fourth phase of Latin- American colonization was the plant- 
ing of Portuguese settlements in Brazil, which must be discussed 
in a separate chapter. 

Colonization of the Islands 
Spanish colonization properly begins in January, 1493, with 
the founding of La Navidad, on the north shore of Hispaniola, 
when Columbus left thirty-nine sailors from the wrecked Santa 
Maria. We have already noticed what fate befell this little 
colony. The second voyage of Columbus was the first real 
colonization expedition to sail out of Spain, Fifteen hundred 
people were shipped and all things thought necessary for the 
planting of a full-fledged colony. The site selected for this 

46 



COLONIZATION OF ISLANDS AND ISTHMUS 47 

enterprise was on the north shore of Hispaniola, some thirty 

miles east of La Navidad, and was named 

isabeihT" ^ ° Isabella in honor of the queen. According to 

the agreement between Columbus and his 

sovereigns, he was to be the governor of the colony. Columbus, 

however, was not a successful ruler. His two brothers, Diego 

and Bartholomew, came out to the colony, and both received 

positions of influence, much to the disgust of the haughty 

Spanish hidalgos, who looked with ill-disguised dislike upon 

the advancement of these Italian adventurers. The two 

priests Margarite and Boyle led a discontented group back to 

Spain, and rumors of the disorganized condition of the colony 

kept finding their way back to the ears of 

Administration of ,-i •! i, j r xi_ r> •! j? ^i 

Columbus ^^^ wi^y ^^^^ 01 the new Council of the 

Indies. The net outcome of the administra- 
tion of Colimibus was a sad failure. In 1500 Bobadilla was 
sent out by the sovereigns to relieve Columbus of his duties, 
and for a year and a half he governed the colony. 

The real successor, however, of Columbus as governor of 
Hispaniola v\?"as Nicolas de Ovando, who came out to the 
colony in September, 1501. He remained in charge until 1508. 
Ovando was a distinguished knight of the order of Alcantara 
and was highly thought of in Spain. His administration, how- 
ever, is chiefly distinguished by the extreme cruelty with which 
he treated the Indians. The system known 
Under ovanTo°* ^^ *^^ cncomicnda, by which land and In- 

dians were partitioned out among the Span- 
iards, got well started under this administration. As we have 
seen, Columbus had desired to enslave the Indians, but so long 
as Queen Isabella lived these attempts had failed. No sooner, 
however, was the good queen dead than the enslavement of the 
Indians went on at an amazing rate. It was not long until 
Hispaniola and the surrounding islands were denuded of their 
native populations. 

Ovando's successor was Diego Columbus, the youngest son 
of the great admiral. He had married the niece of King Fer- 
dinand, Maria de Toledo, and had succeeded in having re- 
stored to him the rights and dignities of his famous father. 



48 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

He and his royal wife came out to Hispaniola in 1509. There 
is Uttle evidence that things improved much under Diego, for 
Diego Columbus ^^ ^^® *^^^ ^^^^ among the first acts of his 

Governor of administration was the giving of new Re- 

Hispanioia partimientos to himself and wife and to other 

royal favorites. It was during his administration that a ship 
bearing the first Dominican friars arrived in the island, and 
with their coming agitation was begun which finally resulted 
in the attempt to protect the Indians by the importation of 
African Negroes. This new policy had far-reaching influence, 
not only upon the West Indian colonies of Spain, but upon the 
English colonies of North America. 

In the meantime the island of Porto Rico, which had been 
sighted by Columbus in his second voyage, had been colonized. 
In 1508 Governor Ovando had sent Ponce de Leon to explore 
the island, and in the next year he was made the governor, and 
a settlement was established near the present site of San Juan, 
which received the name Caparra. Ponce de Leon was re- 
moved from the governorship by Diego Columbus, and Juan 

Ceron was appointed. Under this governor a 
Porto iuco™^°* ° series of settlements were made in the north 

of the island, and the same system of ruthless 
enslavement of the Indians was pursued as in Hispaniola. In 
1520 there was an attempt to save the Indians by the Domini- 
cans, but their influence was not sufiicient to deliver them from 
the savage and rapacious Spaniard. By the end of the six- 
teenth century the race of natives had disappeared from the 
island. Negro slavery was introduced in 1530. The town San 
Juan was founded in 1520, the first settlement being abandoned 
at the same time because of its unhealthy situation. Porto 
Rico was never prosperous, due largely to the character of the 
settlers. 

No attempt was made to plant a colony on Cuba during the 
lifetime of Cokunbus. In 1511, however, in the administration 
of Diego Columbus, a movement was set in motion to occupy 
Cuba, largely for the purpose of finding gold. Diego Columbus 
appointed Don Diego Veldsquez commander of a force to con- 
quer the island. The Indians in Cuba were similar to those 



COLONIZATION OF ISLANDS AND ISTHMUS 49 

on the island of Hispaniola, and were, at first, kindly disposed 
toward the Spaniards. Veldsquez was a man of considerable 
means, being possessed of large estates in Hispaniola. The 
expedition of Veldsquez landed upon the shore of Cuba, and 
immediately the slaughter of the Indians 

Colonization of Cuba mi • i i 7 t 

began, iheir naked bodies and poor wea- 
pons were no match for the weapons and armor of their 
enemies; they were soon put to flight, and the Spaniards pro- 
ceeded to kill men, women, and children in the most cruel and 
heartless way. Those that were not slaughtered were tied to- 
gether and driven before the conquerors like cattle to be dis- 
tributed among the settlers. One of the chiefs, in the east 
part of Cuba, Hatuey by name, was captured and was sen- 
tenced to be burned alive. The priests prepared him for his 
death, and exhorted him to be baptized in order that he might 
go to heaven. He asked if the Spaniards would go to heaven, 
and when told that they would he replied that he had no desire 
to go to such a place. 

Among those who assisted in the populating and pacification 
of Cuba was Narvaez, whom Velasquez made his lieutenant. 
Narvaez had come from the island of Jamaica, which had also 
by this time been occupied by the Spaniards. With Narvdez 

came also Las Casas, who was destined to 
Cas^"^**^*^ occupy a great and honorable place in the 

conquest of these islands, and whose protests 
against cruelty to the Indians, and whose constant work in 
their behaK throughout his whole life, is the only part of this 
story which deserves commendation. 

Within three years the island of Cuba was conquered, and 
Velasquez, now appointed governor, proceeded to found various 
towns, according to Spanish fashion. In 1514 Trinidad, Santa 
Espiritu, and Puerto Principe were founded; the next year San- 
tiago de Cuba and Habana. This was according to the Spanish 
The Founding of method of colony-buildiug. No sooner was a 

Spanish Towns in country occupicd than the conquistador pro- 
" " ceeded to found a town, generally giving it a 

pious name. Thus such names as Trinidad, Santa Espiritu, 
Vera Cruz occur over and over again in Latin American geog- 



50 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

raphy. The Spaniard did not see any inconsistency in ruth- 
lessly slaughtering the natives, and then founding a town with 
a pious name. He was doing it all in the name of his holy reli- 
gion, and for the honor of his blessed Saviour. 

First Colonies on the Mainland 
By 1515 the Spaniards had occupied and colonized all the 
larger of the West India islands. While these Spanish adven- 
turers were conquering and settling the islands, others were 
equally busy attempting the more difficult task of occupying 
the mainland. The very year Diego Columbus came out to 
Hispaniola with his royal wife, two expeditions set out from 
the new port of Santo Domingo, in Hispaniola, to found col- 
onies on the mainland. The leaders of these expeditions were 
Ojeda and Nicuesa. Ojeda was a daredevil adventurer, a type 
with which Spain was well supplied at this 

Ojeda and Nicuesa . 

Obtain Grants to time. He was a man of great personal cour- 

piant Colonies on the ^ge and daring, but with little ability to 
command men. He had, however, powerful 
connections in Spain. Nicuesa was also of good birth, a courtier 
with powerful connections. He had come to Hispaniola with 
Governor Ovando and had been successful in acquiring great 
wealth. King Ferdinand had determined to found colonies 
upon the mainland of South America, and both Ojeda and 
Nicuesa learning of this desired to be made governor of the 
new colony. To avoid the dilemma of deciding between the 
two applicants, the king divided the territory and appointed 
each governor over a separate province. Ojeda was granted 
the north coast of South America, from the Gulf of Darien to 
Cape de la Vela, while to Nicuesa was granted the territory 
from Cape Gracias a Dios to the Gulf of Darien, the river of 
Darien being the boundary between the colonies. 

In November, 1509, Ojeda sailed from Santo Domingo with 
four ships and three hundred men. He landed at the present 
site of Carthagena and, Spanish fashion, immediately began a 
war of extermination against the Indians, whom he found par- 
ticularly warlike, and versed in the use of poisoned arrows. 
Juan de la Cosa, second in command, was killed, and Ojeda 



COLONIZATION OF ISLANDS AND ISTHMUS 51 

and his band were finally routed. Proceeding westward, he 
finally founded a colony on the Gulf of 
sebalZ*^'"^ °* ^ Darien, which received the name "San Se- 
bastian." Here the Spaniards succeeded in 
steaUng some gold from the Indiana and took some Indian 
captives. These were sent to Hispaniola. The colonists spent 
their time looking for gold, paid little attention to their food 
supply, and it was not long before famine began to stare them 
in the face. Finally, Ojeda determined to go in search of pro- 
visions, leaving Francisco Pizarro in command of the colony. 
Before leaving, Ojeda made an agreement that if he did not 
return within fifty days, the colonists were to have the privilege 
of going where they pleased. 

In a stolen Genoese ship Ojeda left his starving colony, des- 
tined never to return. A few days afterward he was wrecked 
upon the shore of Cuba, and for days he and his weakened men 
stumbled along the swampy shore. After almost incredible 
hardships they at last succeeded in reaching Jamaica, and from 
thence made their way to Hispaniola. In the meantime the 
desperate colonists at San Sebastian decided to leave that 
coast. They killed their horses for food and embarked in two 
ships, one commanded by Pizarro. The other 
mS'S^i dS^ ship was sunk, supposedly by a great fish, 
but the one commanded by Pizarro put in at 
the present harbor of Carthagena, where they met another 
vessel, which proved to be a relief expedition under the com- 
mand of Ensico. With Ensico was Balboa, who had come on 
board as a castaway, hiding from his creditors. In spite of the 
protests of Pizarro and his men, Ensico sailed for the site of the 
abandoned colony of San Sebastian. The ship, however, was 
wrecked, and the company saved themselves only after the 
greatest danger. Proceeding on foot, along the shore, fighting 
the Indians as they went, they finally came to the west side of 
the Gulf of Darien, where they founded another colony, which 
received the name Santa Maria del Darien. 

The site of this new colony was in territory granted to 
Nicuesa. While the Ojeda colony was undergoing these va- 
rious bitter experiences, Nicuesa sailed for his province on the 



52 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Isthmus of Panama, with seven hundred colonists. The hard- 
ships which had been encountered by Ojeda and his men were 
duphcated by Nicuesa's men. In making their way up the 
Isthmus from the south, Nicuesa was separated from his fol- 
lowers, and for a time was left alone on a desert island. Finally, 
rejoining his men, a colony was established on the Isthmus. 
Here hunger soon drove them to plunder the Indian villages, 
and on one occasion they were even forced to cannibalism. At 
length they determined to abandon Veragua, the site of their 

first colony. In December, 1510, they set 
onaie'isaimus°°°^ ^^^^ eastward; they passed Porto Bello, which 

had been so named by Columbus, and, reach- 
ing another harbor, the company cried out in their weariness, 
"In the name of God ["en nombre de Dios"] let us stay here!" 
So there they landed, built a wooden fort, and to this day the 
name "Nombre de Dios" is given to this place. Of the seven 
hundred colonists with whom Nicuesa started only one hun- 
dred remained alive when the fort at Nombre de Dios was 
completed, and not one in the company was found strong 
enough to act as sentinel. Meanwhile the men at Santa Maria, 
remnants of the Ojeda colony, having come into the territory 
of Nicuesa, decided to elect him their governor. Nicuesa, how- 
ever, had become extremely harsh, due to his own suffering. 
When he attempted to take command of the colony at Darien 
he was refused a landing, and with seventeen men was set 
adrift in a rotten vessel and was never heard of again. 

Vasco Nunez Balboa now became the head of the united 
colony. He at once began to explore the Isthmus. He also 
made alliances with the Indians, even accepting a bride from 
the daughters of one of the chiefs. It was while he was in 
close association with the Indians that he learned, through a 
speech made by one of the Indian caciques, of the existence of 
a great sea and a golden kingdom to the south. This was in 
1512, and the next spring Balboa was made captain-general of 

Darien. Early in September of the next year 
Pacific, 1^13°^^'^ * ^^ sot together a company of two hundred 

men and started across to find the great sea.. 
On September 25, from the top of the highest range of 



COLONIZATION OF ISLANDS AND ISTHMUS 53 

mountains on the Isthmus, he looked down upon the Pacific, 
but it took four days of the most arduous toil to make his way 
to the shores of the great sea. On reaching the shore Balboa 
walked out into the water and took possession of the new- 
found ocean in the name of the king of Spain. After naming 
the gulf San Miguel he conquered the Indians, on the shore, 
and then won them over by kind treatment. After recovering 
from a severe attack of fever he again reached Darien in Jan- 
uary, 1514, his expedition having occupied four months. 

While Balboa was performing the great service of discovering 
the Pacific things were going badly for him in Spain. Ensico 
had returned home and made serious complaint of him at 
court. Balboa sent a messenger of his own to the king telling 
the good news of the discovery of the great Pacific, but unfor- 
tunately the messenger reached the court too late to serve his 
master's interests. Balboa was removed from the governor- 
ship of Darien and there were many applicants for the position, 
for news had come to Spain of the wonders of Terra Firma. 
The coveted place was finally given to Pedrarias Davila, a 
man of high rank, though he was at the time 
of'Srier'^"'''"''' over seventy years of age. He arrived in 
Darien with a fleet and some fifteen hundred 
colonists in June, 1514. Balboa received him respectfully, but 
a quarrel soon arose between them, resulting in the imprison- 
ment of the former governor. However, peace finally was 
established, and an expedition was planned under the com- 
mand of Balboa to find the golden kingdom to the south. 
This was the first definite plan to search for Peru. Just as the 
expedition was about to sail, Pedrarias Davila, having sus- 
pected Balboa of treason, sent Pizarro to arrest the explorer. 
This was accomplished, and, after a summary trial, Balboa 
was condemned to die and was beheaded in 1517. 

Thus perished three of the greatest conquistadores of Spain. 
Ojeda, after untold suffering, died in a Franciscan monastery 
in Hispaniola; Nicuesa was lost at sea, after having experienced 
the agony of starvation; Balboa was unjustly executed at the 
hands of a jealous rival. But in that first colony on the main- 
land there was yet left one who was to play a conspicuous 



54 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

part in the Spanish occupation of South America, namely, 
Francisco Pizarro. 

During the first twenty years of Spanish occupation of the 
New World colonies had been established on all the larger of 
the West India islands — Hispaniola, Cuba, Porto Rico, and 
Jamaica — while the native populations of these islands had 
either been subjugated or destroyed. Numerous towns had 
been founded, and a definite form of colonial government had 
Summary of the First ^ccn devised. After Overcoming the most ex- 
Period of Spanish treme hardships, a colony on the Isthmus 
om a on ^^^ ^^ j^^^ been established. So far, how- 

ever, the Spaniard had received Httle return from his discov- 
eries or colonial ventures. The amount of gold among the 
Indians of the islands and the Isthmus had not been large, so 
the first twenty years of Spanish colonial history were a finan- 
cial loss to the Spanish monarchs, but it was not long until 
the returns from the Spanish colonies were to be the astonish- 
ment and envy of the world. 

READING REFERENCES 
The best detailed account of the colonization of the Islands and the 
Isthmus is Spanish Conquest of America, by Sir Arthur Helps (New Edition, 
John Lane, 1904). A briefer account is Discovery of America, by John 
Fiske, Vol. II (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1892). 



CHAPTER V 
THE CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, AND CHILE 

After the founding of colonies on the islands of Cuba, Porto 
Rico, and Hispaniola, a very profitable trade in Indian slaves 
was begun, for labor was in great demand on the plantations 
of the conquistadores. In/1517/ an expedition, consisting of 
three vessels, one of them furnished by Velasquez, started 
from CubPu in search of slaves. The commander of this expe- 
dition was Hernandez de Cordoba. They sailed westward from 
Habana, and were driven by a storm upon the shores of the 
peninsula of Yucatan. Here they found a much higher type of 
civilization than the Spaniards had yet seen. After engaging 
in several fierce fights with these semicivilized people, in one 
of which Cordoba was wounded, they returned to Cuba, taking 
The First Expeditions ^^^ them somc native gold and some golden 
to Yucatan, and the images which they had stolen from a native 

ores o exico temple. Soou after their return Cordoba died 
of his wound, but the gold he had brought incited VeMsquez to 
send out another expedition. This was placed under the com- 
mand of the governor's nephew, Juan de Grijalva. There were 
four vessels and two hundred and fifty soldiers. Sailing from 
Santiago de Cuba in April, 1518, they came first to the island 
of Cozumel, just off the coast of Yucatan. They coasted 
around the peninsula and on up the Mexican coast to about 
the present site of Vera Cruz. At this place Grijalva sent 
back one of his captains, Alvarado, with a shipload of sick 
men, while he continued up the coast to about where the 
present city of Tampico stands. Touching at the shore 
from time to time, they came in contact with the native popu- 
lation, and at one place were visited by a taxgatherer of the 
great Montezuma, who told the Spaniards of the glories of the 
kingdom of the Aztecs, and of the great quantity of gold it 
contained. Flushed by this news, thinking that he had found 
the Great Khan himself, Grijalva returned to Cuba, hoping 

55 



56 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

that soon he would be sent on another expedition to explore 
and perhaps conquer this rich and splendid kingdom. But 
these hopes were not to be realized. 

On Grijalva's return to Cuba he learned that his uncle, the 
governor, had been poisoned against him by Alvarado, and 
although another expedition was speedily organized, he was 
not given the command, but to another, Hernando Cortes, fell 
the good fortune of its leadership. Cortes was the alcalde of 
„ Santiago de Cuba, having come out to His- 

Hemando Cortes 

paniola in 1504, where he had been given land 
and Indians. When Velasquez went to Cuba at the head of 
the conquering expedition, Cortes had been appointed his ad- 
viser and executive officer. The governor of Cuba and Cortes 
quarreled, but when Cortes married the sister-in-law of the 
governor the misunderstanding was allayed, and he was ap- 
pointed alcalde of Santiago. Velasquez, however, never ceased 
to be deeply suspicious and jealous of Cortes. 

When Cortes received his commission as commander of the 
third expedition to Mexico he at once threw his whole soul 
into the undertaking. He spent all his money, and even mort- 
gaged his estate to raise funds for the great enterprise. On 
November 18, 1518, six vessels sailed out of the harbor of 
_ „. . , „ . . Santiago, and, coasting along the shore of 

The Third Expedition ® ' ' . ° ° 

Cuba, other vessels jomed the expedition, 
until finally there were twelve ships. On these ships were 508 
soldiers, 109 sailors, about 200 Cuban Indians, and a few native 
women, several Negro slaves, and sixteen horses, which were 
destined to play an important part in the conquest. Among 
the soldiers were 32 crossbowmen and thirteen men carrying 
firelocks, while the remainder were armed only with swords 
and spears. The artillery consisted of ten bronze cannon and 
four falconets. 

Landing first on the little island of Cozumel, they were met 
by Aguilar, a Spaniard who had lived eight years among the 
Indians, and who proved of great value to the expedition, 
through his ability to speak the native tongues. Early in 
March, 1519, the fleet set sail from Cozumel, and made its 
way up the Mexican coast, arriving at San Juan de UUoa early 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 57 

in April. Here a landing was made and an encampment 
formed, and Cortes proceeded to send messengers with pres- 
ents to Montezuma, the ruler of the Aztec empire. On Easter 
day the Aztec chief of the territory in which the Spaniards 
were encamped came to see Cortes, bringing with him as 
The Spaniards Come Presents a great load of cotton cloth, fine 
in Contact with f eathcrwork mantles, and baskets filled with 

on ezuma ^^j^ omaments. When Montezuma received 

the reports regarding the strangers, he decided to send an 
embassy to them with rich presents, and at the same time to 
forbid their approach to the capital. This embassy consisted 
of two hundred nobles and a hundred slaves, and as presents 
to the Spaniards they brought shields and helmets embossed 
with pure gold, gold ornaments, richly ornamented garments, 
strung with gold threads and pearls, imitations of birds and 
animals in gold and silver, cotton robes, fine as silk; and among 
the other articles was a Spanish helmet filled with grains of 
gold to the brim. The greatest gift, however, was two large 
circular plates, one of gold and the other of silver, as large as 
wagon wheels, covered with richly carved plants and birds. 
These great plates were valued at 20,000 pesos de oro (gold), 
or about $233,400. Naturally enough, these rich presents 
aroused the cupidity of the Spaniards as never before. 

While these interesting events were taking place trouble was 
brewing for Cortes. The friends of the governor of Cuba 
began to accuse him of disloyalty, and they soon announced 
their intention of returning to Cuba. Cortes immediately dis- 
armed all suspicion by offering to return himself, which, of 
course, greatly displeased those who desired to stay in the 
country and reap a rich harvest. These protests were so loud 
that Cortes finally agreed to postpone his departure and pro- 
posed, instead, the founding of a colony in the name of the 

Spanish sovereign. This scheme was adopted, 
RiMdeVeraCrm Cortes appointed officers for the new town, 

and shortly afterward these officers elected 
the wily Cortes captain-general and chief justice of the new 
colony. Thus Cortes freed himself from any technical control 
of Velasquez, while he obtained supreme civil and military 



58 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

control. After this had been accomphshed the friends of 
Veldsquez broke out in indignant protest, but, using his new 
authority, Cortes threw them into irons and they were sent to 
the ships. This threatened mutiny, however, did not last long, 
for such was the power of Cortes over men that he was soon 
able to win them all over to his side once more. 

Not long after this another plot was revealed, which was to 
seize a vessel and sail for Cuba, this movement being headed 
by the priest Juan Diaz. The plot was discovered only the 
night before the conspirators were to sail. This led Cortes to 
take a step which for boldness has few equals in the annals of 
adventure. He determined to cut off all retreat from Mexico 
by destroying the fleet. Cortes gave as an excuse to his men 
that the ships were imseaworthy. After removing the anchors, 
sails, and cables, the ships were burned. 

Before we follow Cortes and his little band of adventurers 
from the coast to the capital of the Aztec empire we should 
know something of the condition of this remarkable civiliza- 
tion, which the Spaniards were soon so ruthlessly to overthrow. 
So far as is known, the first people to occupy the territory 
about the present City of Mexico were the Toltecs, who flour- 
ished in the sixth century. The Toltecs were followed by a 
ruder people, and they in turn by tribes of a higher grade of 
culture, the Aztecs, the Tezcucans, and the Tepenacs. These 
tribes made war upon one another, until finally an alliance was 
made between them. They settled down around the group of 
salt lakes in the center of Mexico, and each built their respec- 
tive capital, namely, Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan, in or 
near these lakes. By the middle of the fifteenth century these 
confederated tribes began to make conquests across the moun- 
„ . . , „ . tains to the east, and under the rule of 

Condition of Mexico 

at the Time of the Montezuma I they spread toward the shores 
Coming of the ^f ^he Gulf of Mexico. At the time of the 

Spaniards _, • i i 

coming of the Spaniards the ruler of the 
confederacy was Montezuma II, the grandson of Montezuma I. 
He had been selected as emperor in 1502, and because of arro- 
gance and assumed pomp was very unpopular. Taxation of 
the newly conquered territories was very heavy, and a number 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 59 

of them were ready to rebel at the slightest provocation. This 
was a great factor in the success of the conquest by the Span- 
iards. The most formidable enemies of the Aztecs were the 
Tlascalans, a tribe lying about half way between Mexico and 
the coast. These people had maintained their independen«e 
for several centuries, and their military power was but very 
little below that of the Aztecs. 

The form of government of the Aztec empire was an elective 
monarchy, the electors being four noblemen, chosen from 
among the nobles to perform this service. The sovereigns 
were always chosen from among the brothers or the nephews 
of the deceased monarch. The monarch Uved in Oriental 
splendor. He had councils to aid him in the government, and 
his palace was provided with various halls in which these 
bodies sat. The legislative power was vested solely in the 
monarch. There was also a highly developed judicial system, 
there being a chief judge for each principal city and its de- 
pendencies. The laws of the Aztecs were registered in the 
picture-writing. The chief crimes against society were pun- 
ishable by death. An adulterer, as among the Jews, was 
stoned to death, and the institution of marriage was held in 
great reverence. Revenue was raised by taxation, which was 
levied upon agricultural and manufactured articles, and was 
paid in kind, there being no medium of exchange. The taxes 
Government, Laws. wero gathered by regularly constituted tax- 
and ReUgion of the gatherers, who wore official badges. The re- 
*^*^® ligion of this interesting people was a 

"mixture of enlightened belief and dark superstition." They 
believed in a supreme Creator, whom they addressed as "the 
God by whom we live," "without whom man is nothing," etc. 
Besides the supreme God they had many other gods, who pre- 
sided over the seasons and the various occupations. Among 
these were thirteen special deities, the most interesting of 
which was Quetzalcoatl, the god of the air, who was called the 
Fair God. During the residence of this god upon the earth the 
country prospered. According to Aztec tradition, this god 
was compelled to leave the country, but when he departed he 
promised to revisit the land at some future time, and to his 



60 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

return the people confidently looked forward. This tradition 
proved of much benefit to the Spaniards, for coming from the 
east, they were thought to be the representatives of the Fair 
God. Although the religion of the Aztecs was in many re- 
spects an enlightened faith, it was particularly repulsive to 
the Spaniards because of the prevalence of human sacrifices. 
The country abounded in temples, which were constructed 
upon great mounds. In the temple proper was a great sacri- 
ficial stone, upon which human beings were placed; their 
breasts were opened by stone knives, and their hearts torn out. 
The number of human sacrifices has probably been exaggerated, 
but undoubtedly many hundreds perished each year as victims 
of this gross superstition.^ 

On August 16, 1519, immediately after the destruction of 
the fleet, Cortes started toward the capital of the Aztec em- 
pire, which was situated on an island in the largest of the 
inland lakes. He had succeeded in making an alliance with a 
coast tribe, the Totonacs, and in his force were 1,300 Indian 
warriors, as well as several hundred others who were useful in 
dragging the cannon and transporting the baggage. He now 
had about 400 Spaniards, 15 horses, and 7 cannon. The jour- 
ney was without special incident until they came to the terri- 
tory of the unconquered Tlascalans. Cortes sent an embassy 
to the Tlascalans, requesting that he be permitted to pass 
through their territory, but without avail. After several 
severe engagements with these fierce war- 

The March to Mexico . , rT • i i i i • 

riors, the Spaniards at last succeeded m 
bringing them to terms, and an alliance was made with them. 
As described by Cortes, the city of Tlascala was much larger 
than Granada; there were many houses of cut stone, public 
baths, and other indications of an advanced stage of civiliza- 
tion. After a sojourn of twenty days at Tlascala the Spaniards 
continued their march, the next stop being at Cholula, the 
sacred city of the Aztecs. Here Cortes discovered a plot to 
destroy the Spaniards, 'fathering the Indians in great num- 
bers in the public square of the city, he turned his cannon upon 



1 According to Bernal Diaz, who was with Cortes, there were 100,000 imman skulls in a 
receptacle in one of the suburbs of Cempoalla, 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 61 

them. It has been variously estimated that from six hundred 
to six thousand Indians perished in this slaughter. Leaving 
the city of blood, the Spaniards climbed to the ridge of the 
mountains inclosing the capital cities. While still some twenty 
miles away they caught their first view of the splendid valley 
of Mexico and its group of salt lakes and remarkable temples. 

At last the little band of adventurers encamped on the edge 
of the lake, in the center of which stood the Aztec capital, 
connected with the shore by stone causeways. "Who shall 
describe Mexico of the age? It ought to be one who has seen 
all the wonders of the world. . . . The especial attributes of 
the most beautiful cities in the world were here conjoined; 
and that which was the sole boast of many a world-renowned 
name formed but one of the charms of this enchanted among 
cities. . . . Like Granada, encircled but not frowned upon by 
mountains; fondled and adorned by water, like Venice; as 
grand in its buildings as Babylon of old; and rich with gardens 
^ „. , „ . like Damascus; the City of Mexico was at 

The City of Mexico , , , . , ^ . • , 

that time the fairest m the world, and has 
never since been equaled. . . . She was not only the city of a 
great king but an industrious and thriving people. Mexico 
was situated in a great salt lake, communicating with a fresh- 
water lake. It was approached by three principal causeways — 
constructed of solid masonry, which, to use the picturesque 
language of the Spaniards, were two lances in breadth." ^ One 
of these causeways was two leagues in length and another a 
league and a half. These principal causeways united in the 
middle of the city where stood the great temple. In Monte- 
zuma's palace there was a room where three thousand persons 
could be easily accommodated, and in the city was a market 
place where fifty thousand people could buy and sell, while 
the great temple which stood in the center of the city occupied 
a space twenty times as great as the market place. 

It was on November 8, 1519, that the Spaniards entered 
this magnificent city, by way of the south causeway. As they 
entered they were met by a thousand nobles, and then came 



1 Sir Arthur Helps, Spanish Conquests of America. 



62 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Montezuma himself. The Spaniards were assigned quarters in 
a council house, where Cortes at once took the precaution to 
place guards. Soon after entering the city Cortes decided to 
get control of the person of Montezuma. This stroke had to 
be accomplished by deceit, but Cortes was fully equal to it. 
Learning of an attack which had been made upon the Span- 
iards at Vera Cruz, Cortes went to Montezuma and accused 
him of inciting it. This Montezuma denied, but Cortes told 

the monarch that it would be necessary for 
^^ezuma^*^* him to come and stay in the same house 

with the Spaniards until the affair had been 
cleared up. Thus Cortes obtained possession of the person of 
the Aztec ruler, who was never to regain his liberty. A plot 
to release Montezuma was discovered by the Spaniards. The 
person responsible for it, the nephew of the ruler, who was 
king of Tezcuco, was captured and executed. Montezuma 
was now persuaded to declare his vassalage to the king of 
Spain, and one of the first things demanded was the piayment 
of a great quantity of gold, amounting, according to modern 
calculation, to something near $7,000,000. Cortes also took 
good care to find out where this supply of gold came from. 

While these things had been taking place in Mexico, another 
expedition, of eighteen vessels and some twelve hundred sol- 
diers, under the command of Narvaez, had been sent out from 
Cuba by the suspicious governor. When Cortes learned of 
the landing of this large force in Mexico (in the spring of 1520) 
he immediately left Mexico, with seventy soldiers, leaving the 
forces under the command of Alvarado. It was the plan of 
Cortes to surprise Narvaez while his army was scattered. This 
he accomplished, even capturing Narvaez himself. After this 
remarkable feat Cortes persuaded practically the whole force 
of Narvaez to join his expedition. Meanwhile things in Mex- 
ico had gone badly. While a brave warrior, Alvarado was a 
poor commander, lacking the craft and skill which Cortes pos- 
sessed in such a high degree. Fearing an onslaught of the 
natives, Alvarado decided to attack them first, choosing their 
great spring festival as the time for the onslaught. In the 
fight which followed some six hundred Aztecs were killed. In 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 63 

return the Spaniards were besieged by the natives, and when 
Cortes returned he found the streets of the city deserted, the 
market place closed, and the whole city had taken on a de- 
serted appearance. 

There followed a fearful attack by the Aztecs. Having been 
deposed by his people, Montezuma no longer exercised a re- 
straining influence over them. With awful fury they threw 
themselves upon the Spaniards. Cortes attempted to allay 
their wrath by sending out Montezuma to address them, but 
this was of no avail. In contempt they stoned their deposed 
emperor. He was struck upon the head and died a few days 
later, on June 30, 1520. Finally Cortes decided to leave the 
city, and on July 1 the retreat began. That night is known as 
"la noche triste" among the Spaniards, so great was the slaugh- 
. „ . ter. Cortes started from the city with 1,250 

La Noche Tnste 

Spaniards, 5,000 Tlascalans, and 80 horses. 
When the next morning dawned there were left but 500 Span- 
iards, 2,000 Tlascalans, and 20 horses; all his cannon were in 
the lake, and forty Spaniards were in the clutches of the Mexi- 
cans, doomed to be sacrificed to Mexican war gods. A few 
days after the withdrawal Indians from the neighboring towns 
attacked the Spaniards, but this time Cortes was able to de- 
feat them, which served to hold the allegiance of the Tlascalans, 
who had been on the verge of defection. 

After such an experience as had befallen Cortes the ordinary 
leader would have withdrawn from the country, but not so with 
this adventurer par excellence. He proceeded to gather rein- 
forcements wherever he could. Between July and December, 
1520, he gathered about him great forces, won from the sur- 
rounding populations. He built boats on the lakes. The 
four ships which had brought the force of Narvdez he sent to 
Hispaniola; they returned with horses, men, ammunition, and 
arms. By Christmas he was ready once more to attack the 
City of Mexico. His army now numbered 700 infantry, 118 
arquebusiers, 86 cavalry, a dozen cannon, and several thou- 
sand Indian allies. It was on Christmas day, 1520, that the 
reconquest of Mexico began. This time he proceeded to at- 
tack and conquer the cities around the lakes before proceed- 



64 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

ing to the great central city. This had been accomplished by 

spring, and on April 28 the siege of Mexico 

Th^^Reconquestof ^^^^^ rj,^^ fighting lasted Until August 13, 

1521. The fresh-water supply of the city was 
cut off, and gradually, inch by inch, the Spaniards worked their 
way toward the city, until finally all native resistance was at 
an end. The canals and footways were filled with dead In- 
dians and the magnificent city lay a hopeless mass of ruins. 
An eyewitness of the capture of Mexico thus describes it: "It 
is true and I swear, Amen, that all the lake and the houses and 
the barbicans were full of the bodies and heads of the dead 
men, so that I do not know how I may describe it. For in the 
streets, and in the very courts of Tlaltelulco, there were no 
other things, and we could not walk except among the bodies 
and heads of dead Indians." 

Soon after the fall of the city Cortes decided to make it his 
capital, and he proceeded to reconstruct it, using for the pur- 
pose the Indians of the valley. Within four years a new city 
had risen upon the ruins of the Aztec capital. The plan of the 
new metropohs, the city Cortes rebuilt, followed that of the old, 
though there was considerable change in the style of archi- 
tecture. While the city was being rebuilt enemies of the con- 
queror were active at court, Cortes for some reason having 
gained the dislike of Fonseca, the head of the department of 
the Indies. Another captain-general was sent out, whom the 
Spaniards in Mexico refused to receive; finally, after an in- 
vestigation, the accusations against Cortes were dropped and 
he was appointed governor, captain-general, 

Administration of j i. • i? • j^ • j- -\.t a • mi -i 

Cortes ^^^ chief justice of New Spam. The work 

of Cortes was not confined to the capital, 
but settlements were established in every section of the coun- 
try which afforded favorable conditions. Fleets were sent out 
to explore the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico. Cristoval de 
Olid was sent by Cortes to occupy and colonize Honduras, and 
Alvarado was put at the head of a land expedition to subdue 
Guatemala. Within three years after the conquest of Mexico 
a country four hundred leagues in length on the Atlantic coast, 
and five hundred leagues on the Pacific, had been occupied 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 65 

and annexed to the Castilian crown, and, with the exception 
of a few interior provinces, had been brought to a condition of 
entire tranquillity. 

II. The Conquest of Peru 

We have already noticed the founding of permanent col- 
onies on the isthmus, and the discovery of the Pacific by 
Balboa. In the year 1519 the city of Panama was founded on 
the Pacific side of the isthmus. Soon afterward a rude road 
was cut across, connecting Nombre de Dios and Panama. In 
some of his earlier exploring expeditions Balboa had learned of 
the existence of a great kingdom to the southward. He had 
planned an expedition in that direction, having carried vessels 
piecemeal across the isthmus, and had col- 
Conquest'of'peru lected three hundred men, when the accusa- 
tions and treachery of Pedrarias cut short 
his career. In 1522 the first attempt to reach Peru was under- 
taken by Pascual de Andagoya, but he did not get beyond the 
limits of the discoveries of Balboa. After the circumnaviga- 
tion of the globe had been accomplished by Magellan, the 
attention of the Spaniards was turned decidedly southward, 
and it was not long until the golden kingdom to the south 
began to arouse much interest. 

After the failure of Andagoya's voyage a partnership was 
formed between Francisco Pizarro, whom we have already met 
in the Ojeda colony, an illegitimate son of a Spanish officer; 
Almagro, a daredevil of fiery disposition and unknown parent- 
age; and Luque, a priest of Panama, who served as a sort of 
financial agent of the undertaking. The first expedition of 
the partners started about November 15, 1524, under the 
command of Pizarro. There were two "vessels, though they 
did not sail together. This expedition returned in a very 
dilapidated condition, having proceeded only as far south as 
the San Juan River. Immediately a second voyage was con- 
templated, though considerable difficulty was experienced in 
getting under way, due to the opposition of the governor, 
Pedrarias. Two vessels were again purchased and a hundred 
and sixty men and a few horses collected. In 1526 they sailed 



66 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

as far south as the San Juan; here Pizarro landed with most 
The First (1524) and ^^ *^® ^®^' while AlmagFo was sent back to 
Second (1526) Panama after supplies and reinforcements. 

Expeditions of Pizarro ^^ j^-^ ^.^^^^ Ahnagro found his comrades 

nearly dead from exposure and starvation. Again they 
started southward, only to experience increased hardships, 
when finally it became necessary to send Almagro back once 
more after supplies. Almagro was detained by Pedrarias, who 
had become disgusted at the wildgoose chase, and sent back 
another captain to bring Pizarro and his men back to Panama. 
Pizarro, however, refused to return, and for seven months he, 
with a few companions, remained on an island, where they 
lived mostly on shellfish. Finally, another vessel was sent 
after Pizarro, which returned, after having made a voyage six 
hundred miles below the equator, with five five llamas, vases 
of gold, and several Peruvians on board. 

On his return after his second unsuccessful attempt to reach 
Peru, Pizarro visited Spain, hoping to organize an expedition 
independent of the governor of Darien. He succeeded in ob- 
taining an interview with the Emperor Charles V, and from 
that time became the hero of the hour. He was made captain- 
general and Adelantado of Peru, and in 1530 returned to 
Panama, with his four brothers and a number of other en- 
thusiastic followers. Immediately a third expedition was pre- 
pared, which set sail from Panama on December 28, 1530. 
There were 3 small ships, 183 men, and 37 
Sj^"'* ^^""*^*"'' Worses. After thirteen days' sail Pizarro 
landed and marched along the coast, cap- 
turing the native towns as he came to them. In one town he 
seized booty amounting to 15,000 pesos in gold and 1,500 
marks in silver. This spoil was sent back to Panama in the 
ships. Pizarro hoped that this rich haul would attract others 
to his enterprise. The ships were gone several months, and 
during their absence Pizarro and his men suffered great hard- 
ships. In 1532 he founded the town of San Miguel, where he 
remained several months, learning of other populous towns 
and more of the kingdom he had set out to conquer. On Sep- 
tember 24, 1532, he left the town of San Miguel, and set out 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 67 

for the important Inca town of Caxamarca, which he entered 
on November 15. 

Here we shall leave Pizarro, and turn our attention to the 
civilization of the Incas, and the internal conditions of the 
country at the time of the coming of the Spaniards. 

The territory occupied by the Peruvians or the Incas ex- 
tended from about the second degree north latitude, the pres- 
ent northern boundary of the republic of Ecuador, to about 
the thirty-seventh degree south latitude, a distance of nearly 
3,000 miles in length, and from 300 to 350 in breadth, an area 
of some 800,000 square miles. The physical aspects of this 
country are peculiar in the extreme. The lofty Andes fringe 

the coast, leaving a narrow belt between the 
ofae*&icas^ ™^"^ mountains and the sea, the northern part of 

which is covered with tropical vegetation, 
while to the south is a rainless desert. The face of the 
country would appear peculiarly unfitted for the home of 
a great civilization, and yet the genius of the Indians over- 
came these great difi&culties, and accomplished results, the 
remains of which are the wonder of scholars even in our own 
day. 

The civilization of the country was very old, the historical 
Incas going back as far as 1380, the first^ Inca beginning to 
rule, probably as early as 1250. The culture of this region, 
however, goes back far beyond the Incas. The tradition of the 

origin of Inca civilization is as follows: 
civ^tion "^ "Thousands of years ago there lived in the 

highlands of Peru a people who developed a 
remarkable civilization, and left great ruins, cyclopean in vast- 
ness. . . . These people were attacked by barbarian hordes and 
were driven into the mountains, where they built a city in one 
of the most inaccessible Andean canons. Here they remained 
until they regained their military strength, and finally, their 
mountain quarters becoming too narrow, they left, and went 
back to the vicinity of Cuzco, where they established the Inca 



1 The title "Inca" was applied to all the sovereigns, but at first waa the tribal name, 
and was applied to descendants of the original tribe. 



68 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

kingdom."^ The Inca power had reached its height at the 
time of the coming of the Spaniards. In the 
incas latter part of the fourteenth century Tupac 

Inca, one of the most renowned rulers, had 
conquered territory to the south, now Chile, and had also 
added the territory of Quito, to the north, which rivaled Peru 
in wealth and refinement. This conquering Inca was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Huayna Capac, who died in 1525. This 
Inca had a multitude of concubines, but his lawful wife had 
to be one of pure Inca blood. To this lawful wife was bom the 
legal heir, Huascar, but the Inca also had a son by the princess 
of Quito, Atahuallpa, whom he loved very much, and instead 
of leaving the whole kingdom to the lawful heir, he divided it, 
leaving Quito to Atahuallpa. When the Spaniards arrived in 
the country Atahuallpa had succeeded by treachery in seizing 
all the territory, and Huascar and his brothers were prisoners. 

The religion of the Incas was a comparatively high type of 
polytheism, in which ancestor-worship coexisted with sun- 
worship. The pubhc worship was sun-worship, though there 
was some reverence paid to the moon. There were four great 
festivals, at which sacrifices of sheep, rabbits, and birds were 
made, but there were no human sacrifices, at least at the time 
when the Spaniards arrived. There was a numerous priest- 
hood, divided into many divisions. The high priest was chosen 
from the family of the Inca, and the chief priest of each prov- 
ince was likewise of royal blood. Besides the priesthood there 
were the virgins of the sun, whose chief duties were to keep 
the sacred fires burning in the temples. There were about 
fifteen hundred of these nuns at the temple in Cuzco, and these 
virgins were the concubines of the Inca. In most instances, 
however, a man was allowed but one wife. The agriculture of 
„ ,. . .... the Incas was carried on intensively, indicat- 

Rehgion, Agriculture, . ■, • y-^ 

and Industrial mg that there was a large population. Gar- 

organization of the ^jgj^g ^gj.g carried up the mountain sides, by 
means of terraces, potatoes, fine cotton, and 
maize being the chief crops. The Peruvians were familiar with 
fertilizer, using guano and small fish for that purpose. The 

1 National Geographic Magazine, April, 1913. 



PERU 

1522 




Adapted from Pre»cott's Conquest of Peru 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 69 

people were also skillful in the weaving of woolen and cotton 
cloth and in the molding of gold and silver ornaments, which 
were used extensively in the temples and for personal adorn- 
ment. They had no form of writing, but kept records by 
means of knotted cords. In this respect the Incas were not 
equal to the Aztecs. Before the coming of the Spaniards, 
Peruvian society was very highly organized, families and vil- 
lages being classified according to the decimal system. The 
land was divided into units, the smallest being enough to sup- 
port man and wife. As children were bom, land was added 
sufficient for their support. There was no private ownership 
of land; all belonged to the community. Such was the civiliza- 
tion for the conquest of which Pizarro had led his little band 
of adventurers down the west coast of South America. 

By November, 1532, Pizarro had reached the town of Caxa- 
marca, where he found the Inca Atahuallpa encamped. Pi- 
zarro sent Hernando de Soto and his elder brother Fernando 
to visit the camp of the Inca, having meanwhile made plans 
to get possession of his person, being influenced no doubt by 
Cortes and his seizure of Montezuma. The meeting between 
Pizarro and Inca was attended with all the ceremonies known 
to each. The priest Valverde, who accompanied Pizarro, at 
once began a long discourse before the Inca, summing up the 
history and theology of the church, ending it by handing the 
Inca a copy of the Bible, which Atahuallpa threw in the dust. 
This act of sacrilege on the part of Atahuallpa aroused the ire 
of the Spaniards. They proceeded to avenge 
SS^u^fSe mca it. For two hours the slaughter of the help- 
less Indians continued, Pizarro himself killing 
most of the attendants of the Inca and capturing the ruler. 
It has been estimated that the number of Indians killed in 
this senseless slaughter ranged from two thousand to seven 
thousand. After his captm-e Atahuallpa was confined in a 
room of the building occupied by the Spaniards, and was at 
first treated with consideration. Observing the desire of the 
Spaniards for the precious metals, the Inca agreed to fill the 
room in which he was confined with gold to provide his ransom, 
and it was to be collected in about two months. To this propo- 



70 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

sition Pizarro agreed, and gold in the shape of vases, and tem- 
ple vessels, began to be brought in, until by June, 1533, the 
stipulated quantity was nearly complete. 

Meanwhile Huascar, the deposed Inca, having heard of 
Atahuallpa's ransom, sent word to the Spaniards that he 
would give even a larger sum if they would set him free and 
support him against the usurper. In some way Atahuallpa 
heard of the offer of Huascar, and soon after Huascar was 
found secretly murdered. At this murder the Spaniards be- 
came alarmed, fearing that Atahuallpa had means of arousing 
the country unknown to them, and they proceeded to bring 
Atahuallpa to trial for the murder of his half brother. Ac- 
cordingly, a trial was instituted, and after going through the 
forms, Atahuallpa was duly convicted and sentenced to be 
burned at the stake, though after he had 
At^uS^**""" consented to baptism, he was granted the 

boon of being strangled with a bow string in 
the public square at Caxamarca, on August 29, 1533. At the 
death of the Inca, Pizarro proclaimed one of the Inca's sons 
his successor, but this son soon died. In September, 1533, the 
Spaniards left Caxamarca and proceeded toward Cuzco, the 
Inca capital. On the way they were attacked by six thousand 
Indians, but the Spaniards easily beat them off, and soon after 
this Manco, the son of Huascar, came to Pizarro. After mak- 
ing his submission he was proclaimed Inca, and he and Pizarro 
entered Cuzco together. 

Pizarro now sent Fernando, his eldest brother, back to Spain 
with the king's part of Atahuallpa's ransom. His arrival in 
Spain aroused great excitement. In January, 1535, Pizarro 
founded the town of Lima, which was soon destined to become 
the most important city in the New World. While he was 
busy at this task his brother returned from Spain, bringing him 
news that he had been made a marquis and was to rule over 
the territory two hundred and seventy leagues south of the 
river Santiago, while Almagro had been made a marshal and 
was to be the ruler over the territory to the south of Pizarro. 
Pizarro's territory was to be called New Castile, and Almagro's 
New Toledo. This division of territory led to far- reaching 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 71 

trouble between the partners, for both claimed Cuzco as falling 
Division of the within their jurisdiction. Almagro later started 

Territory and Manco's for what is uow Chile with two hundred men 
surrec on ^ conquer the territory over which he had 

been appointed to rule. No sooner had Almagro departed 
than Manco, the Inca, raised a revolt. At first he had wel- 
comed the Spaniards' help in the government of his kingdom, 
but as he saw them despoihng temples, seizing estates, and en- 
slaving his people, the glamour of the white man departed. 
The Indians besieged Cuzco for six months, from February to 
August, 1536, when finally Fernando Pizarro relieved the city 
and the Indians retired. The retiring Indians met the forces of 
Almagro returning from Chile, and were again defeated. 

The next turn in this tangled story is the attempt of Alma- 
gro to seize Cuzco. Almagro had found no great and wealthy 
cities in Chile to plunder, and he had returned to renew his 
claim to Cuzco. He in turn laid siege to the Inca capital April, 
1537, when he seized the city, capturing the two Pizarro broth- 
ers, Fernando and Gonzalo. This act of Almagro's started a 
civil war in Peru which lasted eleven years. Finally, Almagro 
was captured by the Pizarros, was tried for sedition and exe- 
cuted. In 1539 Fernando Pizarro again returned to Spain with 
great treasures. On account of the troubles in Peru he was 
not permitted to return, and he finally died on his estates in 
Civil War in Peru. Spain in 1578, at a great age. After the 
The Death of Almagro death of Almagro his partisans were treated 
and the Pizarros harshly by the Pizarros, and in 1541 a plot 

was laid by them to kill Francisco Pizarro. On June 26 of this 
year nineteen men succeeded in breaking into his palace at 
Lima and murdered the old man, and proclaimed an illegiti- 
mate son of Almagro, known as "Almagro the Boy," governor 
of Peru. Meanwhile there arrived from Spain Vaca de Castro, 
a learned judge sent out by Charles V to advise Pizarro in the 
government of Peru. He arrived just at the time of the death 
of Pizarro, and at once assumed the governorship. A conflict 
arose between the partisans of Almagro the Boy and Castro, 
and a battle was fought in which young Almagro was defeated 
and captured, and finally beheaded. 



72 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The last of the Pizarros to succumb was Gonzalo. In 1539 
he had been placed over Quito by his brother Francisco, and 
had made an exploring expedition eastward over the Andes as 
far as the Napo River. Later, in 1542, when what was known 
as the "New Laws" lately framed in Spain under the influence 
of Las Casas, to protect the Indians, were proclaimed in Peru, 
he headed an insurrection against their enforcement and was 
captured and beheaded. The death of Gon- 
Pizarros* " ^ ^ ^^^^ Pizarro ended the strange and turbulent 

career of the Pizarro brothers in Peru, al- 
though peace did not come to the country for several years. 
In 1551 the first of the long line of viceroys arrived in Lima, 
in the person of Don Antonio de Mendoza, and with his arrival 
the period of the conquest came to an end. The Indians were 
subdued, Spanish government was established in the land, 
Spanish towns founded, and more than eight thousand Span- 
iards had come out to Peru as settlers. 

The discovery and conquest of Mexico and Peru had a dis- 
astrous effect upon the prosperity of the older Spanish settle- 
ments on the islands. Naturally, the abundant supplies of 
precious metals found by the followers of Cortes and Pizarro 
attracted the population of the islands, and those who re- 
mained were poverty-stricken and neglected; In 1574 there 
remained only about a thousand Spaniards on the island of 
Hispaniola, engaged mostly in sugar and stock-raising. In the 
same year Cuba had a Spanish population of only two hundred 
and forty, while Santiago, which had formerly been a city of 
Effect of the Conquest ^^out a thousand Spaniards, now contained 
of Mexico and Peru but thirty. Havana had a Spanish population 
of only seventy, while Porto Rico and Jamaica 
were in the same plight. In contrast to the depleted condition 
in the islands was the flourishing condition in Mexico and 
Peru.^ In 1574 Mexico City contained a population of fifteen 
thousand Spaniards, with public buildings, churches, schools, a 
university, and well-built houses; Vera Cruz boasted some two 
hundred Spanish families, all merchants and shopkeepers; 



1 Bourne, Spain in America, pp. 196-201, from Juan Loprez de Velasco Geografia y 
Descripcion Universal de las Indias. 




SAX MARTIN 
FRANX-ISCO PIZARRO FRAXCISCO DE MIRANDA 

CORTEvS MONTEZUMA II 



CONQUESTS OF MEXICO, PERU, CHILE 73 

Quito contained some four hundred Spanish famihes, a hos- 
pital, and three monasteries; Lima contained a Spanish popula- 
tion of two thousand families, bejsides a large Indian popula- 
tion, and already the city was becoming famous for the number 
of its church institutions. 

III. The Conquest of Chile 
When Chile first became known to the Spaniards her in- 
habitants had advanced beyond the first stage of society, for 
they lived a settled life and practiced agriculture. They lived 
in village communities, the land being held by the whole com- 
munity, though the several members of the village held private 
property. The people of Chile, however, had not nearly reached 
the stage of development that obtained in Peru and Mexico. 

We have already noticed the coming of Almagro, in the year 
1535, with five hundred and seventy Spaniards and an army of 
Peruvians, to conquer the territory which had been given him 
by the king of Spain. Almagro's attempted conquest was a 
sad failure. The horrors of his march along the summit of the 
Andes have been vividly described by Prescott in his Conquest 
Almagro's Attempted ^f Peru. By the time the expedition reached 
Conquest of ciuie, the interior of the country many had died 
'^^^ of cold and hunger. At first the natives 

were friendly, looking upon the Spaniards as a superior race 
of beings, but when the Spaniards began to repay the natives' 
trust and kindness by cruelty and murder, they took up arms, 
and so effective was their resistance that Almagro abandoned 
his expedition and returned to Peru. 

In the year 1540 Pizarro, having determined to conquer 
Chile, sent Pedro de Valdivia with a force of two hundred 
Spaniards and a large number of Peruvians to conquer and 
colonize the territory. Valdivia met with a determined re- 
sistance on the part of the natives, but he pushed his way into 
the country, and in 1541 founded the city of Santiago, naming it 
in honor of the patron saint of Spain. Pushing southward, 
Valdivia founded Imperial and Concepcion, and later the city 
of Valdivia, this town being the first instance in which a Span- 
iard gave his name to a settlement. In the planting of these 



74 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

more southern cities Valdivia met a new enemy in the fierce 
Araucanians, and in 1553 he met his death in fighting these 
warHke Indians. On the death of Valdivia the viceroy of Peru 
sent his son, Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, as governor of 
Chile. The year 1553 also marked the beginning of the long 
Araucanian wars, which were to last for more than a century. 
So successful were the Indians in their wars against the Span- 
iards that in 1598 they expelled the Span- 
SloiTe^s S^Jm? '' iards from nearly all the settlements they had 
established in Chile. On account of the con- 
tinued war large bodies of troops were stationed within the 
territory. The loose tribal organization of the Indians made 
it almost impossible to conquer them, for they could retire 
into the mountains and thickly wooded country and the Span- 
iards were thus kept from inflicting any decisive defeat upon 
them. General after general and army after army were sent 
from Peru and Spain, but still the war went on and the natives 
remained unconquered. The first lull in this long war did not 
come until 1640, when a treaty of peace was signed between 
the Spaniards and the natives. The treaty provided that the 
Biobio River was to be the boundary between the Spaniards 
and the Araucanians, and the Indians were to recognize the 
king of Spain as their feudal superior. This peace lasted for 
fifteen years, when war once more broke out. This struggle 
lasted until 1724, when a new peace was signed which lasted 
until 1766. The third war lasted until 1780, when a peace was 
signed which continued until the end of the colonial period. In 
no country in South America did the Spaniards meet such 
persistent opposition as they experienced in Chile from the 
invincible Araucanians. 

READING REFERENCES 

The classic accounts of the conquests are The Conquest of Mexico and 
The Conquest of Peru, by William H. Prescott. Their chief fault arises 
perhaps from a somewhat too exuberant imagiuation on the part of their 
author. They are, however, well worth a careful reading, because of 
scholarship and literary power. A somewhat more sober accoimt, one 
written from a more critical point of view, is Spanish Conquest of America, 
by Sir Arthur Helps. 4 vols. (1900-1904). 

Discovery of America, by John Fiske, Vol. II, is a much briefer account. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE FOUNDING OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLONIES 
OF SPAIN: VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA, AND LA 
PLATA 

The colonies of Spain in America may be divided into two 
classes, according to their products: (1) the mineral-producing 
colonies; (2) the agricultural colonies. The chief colonies of 
the first type are Mexico and Peru, while the representative 
colonies of the second class are Venezuela, New Granada, and 
the colonies established along the Rio de La Plata. Naturally, 
the Spaniard's chief interest was in those colonies where the 
precious metals were found in abundance, while the agricul- 
tural colonies might be termed the neglected colonies. It is 
the purpose of this chapter to recount the founding of these 
neglected colonies. 

Venezuela 

The coast of what is now Venezuela was the first part of the 
mainland of America to be sighted by Columbus. In the year 
following (1499) Ojeda, accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci, ex- 
plored a much greater section of the coast. It was this expedi- 
tion of Ojeda's which gave the name "Venezuela" to the 
Discovery and Early country. The Spaniards, seeing the native 
Colonization of huts built upou pilcs, to keep them above 

Venezuela ^j^^ swam'py ground, called the country Vene- 

zuela, or little Venice. These Spaniards made some attempts 
at settlement, but with little success. During these early years 
of Spanish dominion the northern part of South America was 
under the jurisdiction of Hispaniola. In 1527 an expedition of 
sixty men from the island founded the city of Coro, which 
became the seat of government, and so remained until 1576. 

The real reduction of the territory, however, was accomplished 
by the agents of the German merchant house of the Welsers. 
Charles V had borrowed heavily of this house, and in payment 
he bestowed upon them the province of Venezuela, to be held 

75 



76 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

as a fief of the crown of Castile. The title of "adelantado" 
was to be given to the person whom the Welsers should nom- 
inate, and the right of making slaves of the Indians who re- 
sisted them was permitted. Unfortunately, the Welsers com- 
mitted the carrying out of the plan to some adventurers, who, 
instead of developing the country, spent their time in plun- 
The Period of the deriug and enslaving the Indians. They 
German Merchants, wandered from district to district in search 
IS27-IS4S q£ mines, and their cruelty and avarice made 

the exactions of the Spaniards seem mild in comparison. For 
eighteen years the Welsers held power in Venezuela, and the 
only civilizing thing accomplished was the founding of the city 
of Tocuyo. In 1545 the grant was rescinded and the Welsers 
willingly relinquished their right, for the province was so deso- 
lated that it hardly afforded a subsistence to the few Europeans 
dwelling in the territory. With the withdrawal of the Ger- 
mans a Spanish governor was sent out, and under the new 
administration the selling of Indians as slaves ceased, though 
they were distributed among the Spanish settlers imder the 
law of encomiendas. 

During the second half of the sixteenth century the history 
of the territory is made up of accounts of exploring expeditions, 
of the founding of towns, and of Indian wars. The first Span- 
ish governor was Perez de Tolosa, whose administration ended 
with his death in 1548. During all of the latter part of the 
sixteenth century the coast was much troubled with free- 
booters and pirates, whose repeated attacks kept the country 
in a constant state of apprehension and uncertainty. Espe- 
Free-booting and ^ially was this true after the trade in Negro 

Piracy Along the slaves became active. English adventurers, 

Venezuelan Coast following the example of John Hawkins and 
Drake, opened up a profitable trade between the Guinea coast 
of Africa and the West Indies and South America. Many of 
these adventurers became pirates pure and simple, with head- 
quarters in the Bahamas, or on the other small islands, and 
made a business of raiding the Spanish colonies or capturing 
treasure ships. Sir Walter Raleigh made two expeditions to 
the Venezuelan coast in search of the fictitious kingdom of El 



THE AGRICULTURAL COLONIES 77 

Dorado. On the first trip, made in 1598, he sailed four hun- 
dred miles up the Orinoco, and on returning wrote a valuable 
description of the country he had discovered. 

In 1550 Venezuela became a captaincy-general, though it 
was not until the close of the seventeenth century that a set- 
tled government was established. Caracas was founded in 
1567 under the name Santiago de Leon de Caracas, and became 
the capital of the captaincy-general in 1576. The city of Barce- 
lona was founded in 1617 and soon became the center for agri- 
. „ . cultural products, as it was situated near 

Progress in Venezuela 

fertile grazing and agricultural lands. The 
crops raised by Negro and Indian labor were maize, potatoes, 
bananas, and in the higher valleys, wheat and other small 
grains, as well as tobacco and sugar. Cocoa trees were intro- 
duced in spite of the Spanish government, and an illegal trade 
in cocoa soon grew up. The Spanish government prohibited 
the exportation of agricultural products, and it was not until a 
more liberal trade policy was introduced that Venezuela began 
to prosper. 

New Granada 

New Granada was the scene of the first attempt to found 

colonies on the mainland by the Spaniards. In 1508 Ojeda, 

having obtained a grant from the king of territory from Cape 

de la Vela to the Gulf of Uraba, attempted colonization with 

disastrous results. The first permanent set- 

Early Colonization , n , ■» t j i • i 

tlement was at banta Marta, which was 
founded in 1525, but it was little more than a slave-catching 
station. Expeditions from Hispaniola scoured the country for 
Indian slaves, who were sent to the island to work the mines 
and plantations. Coro, in Venezuela, established in 1527, was 
likewise a slave-catching center, and expeditions from these 
two centers penetrated into what is now Colombia, and in a 
few years the Spaniards had a fair idea of the geography of the 
country. 

The real colonization, however, began with the founding of 
Cartagena, in 1533, by Heredia, who established his colony as a 
gold-seeking center. Heredia and his men were successful in 
finding profitable gold washings, and it is said they received a 



78 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

larger amount of gold than even the conquerors of Mexico or 
Peru. Other cities were founded in succeeding years. Benal- 
cazar, one of the heutenants of Pizarro, after conquering Quito, 
proceeded northward into the valley of the Cauca, finally 
meeting the men from the north coming down from Santa 
Marta and Cartagena. In 1536 Quesada started from Santa 
Marta with eight hundred followers and a hundred horses on 
EstabUshment of ^^ expedition into the most populous part of 

Santa Marta. Carta- the country. He made his way up the Mag- 
geaa, and Bogota dalena and penetrated as far as Bogota, the 

native capital. Quesada encountered almost unsurmountable 
obstacles, for the country is very difficult, and by the time 
Bogota was reached three fourths of his men had been lost. 
The high plateau about Bogota was inhabited by a race known 
as Chibchas, who had reached a grade of civihzation only 
sHghtly inferior to that of the Aztecs or the Peruvians. They 
lived in houses, wore clothes of cotton cloth, made ornaments 
of gold, and had carried agriculture to a high degree of perfec- 
tion. In government and military organization, however, they 
were far inferior to the Mexicans or Incas, and Quesada found 
little difficulty in conquering them. In 1538 he established the 
Spanish city of Santa Fe de Bogota, on the site of the native 
capital. 

In the meantime other Spaniards from Quito and Cartagena 
had penetrated into the high and fertile plateau, and other 
cities were soon established. Within twenty-five years after 
the founding of the first Spanish colony the Spaniards were in 
undisputed control of the country. The reported fertility of 
the region caused a stream of settlers to flow in, and flourishing 
communities, both along the coast and in the interior, were 
New Granada in the plantcd. The natives were reduced to the 
Latter Sixteenth and state of serfs Under the cncomienda system. 
Seventeenth Centuries ^^ glsewhere in Latin America. In 1550 the 
Royal Audiencia of Bogota was established, and in 1564 the 
colony was changed into a presidency. The first president was 
Andres Venero de Leyva, under whose administration the country 
was well governed. Roads were built, schools established, coin- 
age introduced, and the country as a whole greatly prospered. 



THE AGRICULTURAL COLONIES 79 

Following De Leyva, who ruled until 1575, there was a long 
series of governors, who came and went without producing 
much change. In 1718 New Granada was made a vice-royalty. 
Until that time it had been a part of the vice-royalty of Peru. 

Rio de La Plata Colonies 

The earliest explorers of the La Plata were not interested in 
the colonization of the country, but, rather, in trying to find a 
way through the continent to the coveted east. In 1511 Juan 
Diaz de Solis entered the Rio de La Plata with this end in view. 
Fifteen years later Sebastian Cabot, the Pilot Major of Spain, 
took an expedition up the Parana in the hope of thus reaching 
the Pacific. He sailed up the river to the mouth of the Tercero, 
The Early Explorers wherc a colony was founded and named San 
of the Rio de La Espiritu. This was the first Spanish settle- 

^^ ment in this part of South America. The 

colony was composed of one hundred and seventy men, but 
with Cabot's return to Spain, in 1530, it soon disappeared be- 
fore the onslaughts of famine and hostile savages. Cabot, 
however, returning to Spain, gave glowing reports of the coun- 
try, but was unable to report any gold or a native civilization 
to plunder. For this reason the country did not prove greatly 
attractive to the Spaniard. The enthusiasm of Cabot, how- 
ever, aroused the interest of one man, Pedro de Mendoza, and 
it was due to his efforts that the first permanent colony was 
established on the La Plata. 

Mendoza was a nobleman with influential connections at 
court. He succeeded in making a contract with the king which 
provided that he should be made adelantado of the region to 
be settled, on condition that he send over one thousand men, a 
number of ecclesiastics, and two hundred horses. The expedi- 
tion was thoroughly organized according to the Spanish model. 
Such prestige did the imdertaking gain in Spain that volun- 
teers flocked to the enterprise, and instead of one thousand 
^ J- c.u V , men there were two thousand five hundred 

Founamg of the First 

Colony on the La when they finally set sail on September 1, 

^^^ 1534. The colony landed at the present site 

of Buenos Ayres in February, 1535, where they founded a city 



80 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

and named it Santa Maria de Buenos Ayres. To this new city, 
however, prosperity failed to come. Instead there came famine 
and pestilence, which rapidly decreased their number, until a 
year from their landing there were but six or seven hundred 
remaining. The Indians inhabiting the region were savages 
and lived in small tribes scattered over the plains. These 
Indians were extremely hostile to the Spanish settlers and car- 
ried on constant warfare against them. Finally, the desperate 
colonists abandoned their settlement and fled up the river, 
hoping either to find El Dorado or reach the colonies already 
estabhshed about Lake Titicaca. 

Pushing up the Paraguay, the party finally divided. One 
group, under the command of Irala, remained behind and 
founded a permanent settlement on the present site of Asun- 
cion. About two hundred of the adventurers 
Asuncion ° Continued up the river, but were never heard 

of again. Years afterward friendly Indians 
reported that they had reached the slopes of the Bolivian 
mountains, where they had found much gold and silver, and 
were returning with their treasure when they were ambushed 
by hostile Indians and perished to the last man. 

The new colony established at Asuncion was very far away, 
a thousand miles from the coast, and was left much alone. In 
1540 a new adelantado, De Vaca, was appointed. He succeeded 
in making his way to the settlement, but the settlers soon tired 
of his rule and he was sent back to Spain. The colonists then 
selected Irala as governor. He continued the dominating figure 
in the colony imtil his death in 1567. The rule of Irala was im- 
portant because of the relationship which he established be- 
tween the settlers and the Indians. Laws 
of'iraifTAs^iSi were made providmg that any Spaniard 
might conquer a tribe of Indians and become 
its master, holding it under the title of encomienda. Polygamy 
was also introduced, which became general in the colony. Irala 
himself espoused the seven daughters of a certain Indian 
cacique, and each of the soldiers was allowed two wives. This 
led to a rapid mingling of the blood of the Spaniards with the 
natives. The horses brought by the Spaniards multiplied rap- 



THE AGRICULTURAL COLONIES 81 

idly, as did also their sheep and cattle, and it was not long 
until vast herds of live stock were wandering over the limitless 
pampas. Pastoral life more and more appealed to the Span- 
iards and Creoles of the region, and live-stock products became 
increasingly important in the valleys of the great rivers. 

While Asuncion was struggling for life other attempts were 
made to found a city at the mouth of the river. In 1542 De 
Vaca arrived from Spain, on his way to Asuncion, with four 
hundred Spaniards, and a second attempt was made to estab- 
lish Buenos Ayres. The site selected for the city was "one of 
the worst ever chosen for a city." It has one of the worst har- 
bors in the world for a great commercial center, but the Span- 
iards persisted in their efforts and to-day Buenos Ayres, the 
greatest city of the southern hemisphere, is a monument to the 

persistence of the Spanish conquistadores. 
Buenos"A^s°* ^® Vaca's attempt was likewise a failure. 

Zarata, the third adelantado, made another 
attempt, but failed as badly as either of his predecessors. De 
Garay, a man of energy and foresight, who had taken a prom- 
inent part in the conquest of Peru, was the leader who finally 
solved the difficulties of establishing a city on the coast. In 
1576 he was appointed lieutenant-governor and captain-general 
of Rio de La Plata, and continued his rule until slain by the 
Indians in 1584. Under him many colonies were established 
in different parts of the territory, among them Santa Fe. In 
the spring of 1580 he sent overland from Santa Fe two hun- 
dred Indian families, with horses, cattle, and sheep, while boats 
carried arms, ammunition, seeds, and tools. He and forty com- 
panions followed down the river to the site of the colony. This 
well-organized enterprise was successful in the permanent es- 
tablishment of Buenos Ayres. 

Until 1617 Buenos Ayres and Asuncion were imder the same 
government, and both a part of the vice-royalty of Peru. 
Following the death of Garay conditions in the valley of the 

La Plata were unsettled. The people were 
s^TCdrr^***"" °^ more independent than elsewhere in Spanish 

America and insisted on having a part in the 
selection of their rulers. In 1591 the colonists elected Arias de 



82 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Saavedra, a native of Asuncion, as their ruler, and his election 
was confirmed by the crown. Four times did Saavedra serve 
as governor of the province, his last term being from 1615 to 
1618. 

By 1617 Buenos Ayres had become a town of some three 
thousand people, and the right bank of the Parana as far as 
Santa Fe was covered with vast herds of cattle and sheep be- 
longing to the Creoles. Other cities also were springing up. 
In this year (1617) the province was divided 

Buenos Ayres Made j -r> at. i e 

a Separate Province ^^^ Buenos Ayi'cs became separate from 
Asuncion or Paraguay. The new province 
included the present Argentina provinces of Buenos Ayres, 
Santa Fe, Entre Rios, and Corrientes, as well as the present 
republic of Uruguay. The first governor of this new territory 
was Diego de Gongora, while the first separate governor of 
Paraguay was Manuel de Frias. 

Before the division of the province Jesuit missionaries had 
gained a foothold in Paraguay. Their influence greatly in- 
creased until they had established a veritable theocracy over 
certain of the Indian tribes. They first entered the country in 
1586 for the purpose of bringing Christianity to the Indians 
and established a school in Asuncion. They later pushed out 
into the remoter parts of the country. The natives were treated 
with great kindness. The Jesuits learned the Indian tongue 
and taught the Indians the rudiments of religion. Their suc- 
cess was phenomenal, and it was not long 
Paraguay' ^ " Until they had gathered large numbers of 

Indians into settled communities and were 
teaching them agriculture and other civilized arts. The na- 
tives were taught to build comfortable houses; warehouses 
were constructed to care for the crops, while the native women 
were instructed in the arts of weaving and spinning. In 1608 
Philip III gave his royal sanction to the Jesuit work along the 
upper Parana. In 1614 there were one hundred and nineteen 
Jesuits at work in this region, and from this date to 1769, when 
the king of Spain banished them from all of his dominions, the 
Jesuits controlled the Indians of Paraguay and adjoining ter- 
ritory. 




AGRICULTURAL 
COLONIES 

IN SPANISH SOUTH 
AMERICA 

Coro 1527 

Santa Muta 1323 

SanEipiritu 1330 

Asuncion 1536 

1536 

Caiacai 1367 

Buenot Aires 1 376 

BarceloDa 1617 

IN BRAZIL 

BaWa 1509 

Rio de Jandio .... 1 328 
Pemambuco 1 530 



THE AGRICULTURAL COLONIES 83 

READING REFERENCES 

The best account of the founding of Venezuela and New Granada and 
colonies along the Rio de La Plata is The Establishment of Spanish Rule 
in America, by Bernard Moses (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1898), Chapters 
VII and VIII. Chapter IX of the same volume is devoted to a discussion 
of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay. 

A good general account is History of SoiUh ATnerica, by Thomas C. 
Dawson (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903-1904), Vol. I. 

For the founding of the city of Buenos Ayres Spanish and Portuguese 
South America, by G. R. Watson (London, 1884), Vol. II; also History of 
European Colonies, by E. J. Payne (New York, 1889), Chapter VII. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL 

In February, 1500, Vincente Pinzon, one of the companions 
of Columbus on his first voyage, saw land in the neighborhood 
of Cape Saint Roque. It is also probable that Ojeda and Ves- 
pucci, six months before, saw the coast of Brazil at about the 
same place. The real discovery of Brazil, however, was the 
work of the Portuguese navigator Cabral, This Portuguese 

nobleman sailed from Lisbon in March, 1500, 
S'STby^cXa'^ on a voyage to India, continuing the work of 

Da Gama. It is said that Da Gama wrote 
the sailing instructions for the voyage, which gave direction to 
bear eastward after passing the thirty-fourth degree south lati- 
tude. Whether by accident or not, Cabral in May, 1500, 
sighted land in what is now the southern part of the present 
state of Bahia. After landing and erecting a large stone cross, 
Cabral took possession of the country for his king and then con- 
tinued his voyage around Africa, to India. 

The news of this discovery reached Portugal in the fall of 
1500, and a small fleet was at once dispatched to ascertain the 
extent and condition of the land discovered. They hoped to 
find a highly developed civilization, but the natives they saw 
were but savages and gave little promise of a highly developed 
state of culture. This expedition was under the command of 

Amerigo Vespucci, now in Portugal's employ. 
Brarir"'^ ^**^^*'* *° ^^ coasted southward along the east coast, 

naming rivers and bays as he went. Thus he 
reached the Rio San Francisco on Saint Francis Day and gave 
the river the name of the saint; on New Year's day, 1501, he 
sailed into the harbor of the present city of Rio de Janeiro 
and named the harbor the River of January. For two thousand 
miles he sailed along the coast looking for gold, silver, and 
spices, but the only thing of value found was Brazil wood, and 

81 



PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL 85 

it was not long until the country which produced this product 
in such abundance became known as Brazil. 

Portugal was slow to colonize the new country which had 
come into her possession so unexpectedly. An occasional Por- 
tuguese ship sailed along the coast, gathering dye wood, and 
the coast came to be well known to navigators. Ships from 
other countries, especially those of France, came more and 
more frequently, and although Spain never seriously disputed 
the claim of Portugal, yet it became increasingly evident that 
Portugal must establish permanent colonies if she hoped to 

retain the territory. The colonists to be sent 
New^FoL^d Ste '^ 0^®^ were criminals set on shore by the ships 

bound for India. One of this class was Diego 
Alverez, landed in 1509 near the present site of Bahia. He 
made terms with the savages and finally married a daughter of 
a chief and raised a numerous half-breed family. Another such 
was Joao Ramalho, who did much the same as Alverez near San- 
tos. In succeeding years other such characters were landed, one 
of whom, collecting an army of Indians, went on a gold-hunting 
expedition, penetrated the coast range, and entered territory 
tributary to the Incas, several years before the Pizarro conquest. 
The first regular colonizing attempt was organized in 1530, 
when five ships and several hundred colonists, under command 
of Matin de Sousa, set sail for Brazil. They reached the coast 
near Pernambuco in the early part of 1531. A colony was 
planted on a little island, Sao Vicente, near the present port of 
Santos, where they were welcomed by Ramalho and his half- 
breed family. Following the establishment of this first regular 

colony, a number of others were undertaken 
S[o^S*Sf Irazii in quick succession. It was decided by the 

Portuguese crown to divide up the whole 
coast into feudal grants, fifty leagues in length, with no limits 
in the interior. These were given to Portuguese noblemen 
with absolute power over the natives. This system had already 
been adopted in the Madeira and Azores, and was very nat- 
urally adopted for Brazil. Twelve of these grants were marked 
out, though only upon six were permanent colonies planted. 
Brazil was the first colony in America to be established upon 



86 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

an agricultural basis. While the colonists upon the islands were 
practicing agriculture to some extent, yet up to this time the 
precious metals were the all-absorbing attraction everywhere in 
the Spanish colonies. The basis for successful BraziUan col- 
onization was the sugar industry. Sugar cane was brought from 
Brazu, the First *^® Madeira Islands as early as 1526; the in- 

Agricuiturai Colony dustry prospered from the start, and it was 
"* ^"*^^ not many years until Brazil became the chief 

source of the world's supply. Although Portuguese law forbade 
the enslavement of the Indians, the colonists paid Httle heed to 
this prohibition, and the savages were enslaved in great num- 
bers. The native Brazilians, however, were not so easily in- 
duced to labor as were the natives of Peru and Mexico, and the 
importation of Negroes from the Guinea coast became a com- 
mon practice. As a result the Negro population of Brazil soon 
grew to be the most numerous in South America. 

Another interesting contrast between the Portuguese col- 
onies in America and those of Spain is that the Portuguese 
came to South America with their families, which was true of 
Portuguese Colonists ^11 classes. The Spaniard, especially the chief 
Bring Out Their among them, came out alone, and often re- 

anu es to razi tuTUcd after a period of office-holding. The 

Portuguese colonist sold out his possessions at home and 
brought his household with him to America. Brazil early be- 
came a plantation colony, and the products of the east, familiar 
to the Portuguese, were early transplanted to the Brazilian 
plantations. 

By the middle of the sixteenth century the whole coast line 
from the mouth of the Amazon to the mouth of the La Plata 
was studded at intervals with Portuguese settlements, in all 
of which Portuguese law and justice were administered. In 
1549 the king of Portugal took a new step in his American 
colonies. He revoked the grants which had been made to cer- 
tain noblemen in order to concentrate the government in the 
The Government of hauds of a Central powcr. Thomas de Sousa 
Brazil Centralized, was the first govemor-gencral. He sailed for 
^^^^ Brazil in April, 1549, with six vessels, on 

board of which were three hundred and twenty officials, three 



PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL 87 

hundred convict colonists, and six Jesuits. The instructions 
were to build a strong city at Bahia, where the seat of govern- 
ment was to be established. Within a few months a town of 
over two hundred houses had been built and fortifications 
erected. The town received the name of Sao Salvador, which 
soon became the recognized center of Portuguese interests in 
America. 

The Jesuits brought over by De Sousa began at once to work 
among the Indians. These heroic priests went out alone among 
the Indian tribes, lived with them, learned their language, and 
exhorted them to abandon cannibalism and polygamy. Every- 
T .. ™. .. • » .. where they were successful with the Indians, 

Jesuit Work m Brazil , , , 

though they experienced great difficulty among 
the Portuguese, many of whom were leading scandalous lives. 
The Jesuits opposed the enslavement of the Indians, and their 
villages of converted Indians served as refuges for slaves fleeing 
from the plantations. Especially was this true in Sao Paulo, 
where plantation owners came in constant conflict with the 
Jesuits. In 1552 the first bishop for Brazil was appointed, 
which greatly aided the work of the church in the colony. 

In 1558 the French, who had all along been interested in the 
Brazilian coast, founded a numerous colony at Rio de Janeiro, 
composed mostly of Huguenots. It was Admiral Cologny who 
The French in Brazil; conceivcd the idea of establishing a refuge 
the Founding of Rio for his persecuted countrymen in America. 

anetto, iss j^^ adventurer, Nicolas Villegagnon, was se- 

lected to lead the colonists out to America. He proved a traitor 
and badly mistreated the colonists, many of whom returned to 
France. Finally, Villegaignon himself, finding his force dimin- 
ished, was compelled to return. During his absence the Portu- 
guese seized the colony and in 1567 succeeded in firmly estab- 
lishing their authority. 

The governor under whom the French were expelled was 
Mem da Sa, a very able and experienced administrator. He 
came to Brazil in 1558 and continued to administer the colony 
until his death in 1572. The colony experienced great pros- 
perity during these years, and most of the settlements grew 
rapidly. At his death there were about sixty thousand civilized 



88 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

people in the colony, about twenty thousand of whom were 
white. By far the largest proportion of the population lived 
in the northern part of Brazil, in the vicinity of Pemambuco 
and Bahia, while smaller settlements were 
sS^^*Century Scattered along the coast southward. Most 
of these settlements were primarily engaged 
in the sugar industry, the average plantation producing forty- 
five to fifty tons of sugar annually. The Brazilian plantations 
were large and there was little selling of land. Land was free 
and nontaxable, and the owner could hold great tracts without 
cultivation. The rural population was greatly scattered, there 
being practically no small farmers. The sugar planters lived 
lavishly and spent great sums on social entertainment, and 
rich silks and velvets were commonly seen among them. Many 
sugar planters commanded incomes of ten thousand dollars and 
upward, and extravagance and abundance went hand in hand. 

Following the death of the king of Portugal in 1580, and 
many of the Portuguese noblemen in a battle against the Moors 
in Africa, Philip II of Spain succeeded in establishing himself 
upon th,e Portuguese throne. For sixty years the crowns of 
Portugal and Spain were united. During these years Brazil 
suffered more or less neglect, owing to the fact that it was 
generally believed that Spain's colonies were superior in wealth 
The Period of Spanish *« ^hose of Portugal. The internal manage- 
Ruie in Brazil— ment of Brazil, however, went on much as 

1580-1640 before, and the Portuguese continued to hold 

the monopoly of Brazilian commerce. In this period in Brazil- 
ian history the Dutch, English, and French were active in 
their attacks upon the Brazilian coast. During these years 
the Dutch were carrying on their heroic struggle for inde- 
pendence, while England and Spain were also at war. Brazil, 
now a Spanish possession, was therefore a legitimate place of 
attack. The French also renewed their efforts to regain a foot- 
hold on the coast, and in 1612 a French Protestant colony was 
planted on the island of Maranhao. In 1616, however, the 
Portuguese drove the French away and took possession of their 
colony. 

Of far more lasting importance than the attempts of the 



PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL 89 

French to gain a foothold were the activities of the Dutch. The 
Dutch had gained their independence by the close of the six- 
teenth century, and the early years of Dutch independence are 
among the greatest in her history. The Dutch were active on 
the sea, in conunerce, and trade. Dutch ships were frequenting 
every sea, and Dutch ambition was reaching 

Dutch Activity in the x j • tj. i i i i • 

Seventeenth Century o^* ^nd graspmg after markets and colonies. 
In 1595 the Dutch East India Company was 
formed, and her trade with the East Indies was the most exten- 
sive in Europe. While this Dutch company was engaged in 
laying a foundation for a colonial empire in the east, another 
Dutch company, the Dutch West India Company, was in- 
corporated. The object of this new company (organized 1621) 
was not alone to establish legitimate trade relations in the New 
World, but also to plunder the treasure fleets of her arch enemy, 
Spain. In fact, this may be said to have been the chief object. 
In 1624 a great Dutch fleet attacked the Brazilian capital 
and captured the town, the governor himself becoming a pris- 
oner. For two years they held Bahia, when Spain sent forty 
ships and eight thousand soldiers, and the Dutch surrendered. 
The Dutch continued to harass the fleets of Spain and Portu- 
™ ^ ^ « ^,. ^ gal, and in thirteen years captured over five 

The Dutch Estabbsh f i i i • -, ■, 

Themselves Upon the himdrcd ships, and booty amoimtmg to 



frSS *^°*^*~ 000,000. In 1630 the Dutch captured Per- 
nambuco and all efforts of the Spanish 
government to take the town were unavailing, and by 1636 
the Dutch were firmly established along the San Francisco 
River. When Portugal regained her independence from Spain 
an impulse toward national feeling was created among the 
Portuguese living under Dutch rule in Brazil. In 1544 a rebel- 
lion was organized against the Dutch, culminating in 1655, 
when the Dutch were compelled to surrender Pemambuco. 
With this event the power of the Dutch in Brazil came to an 
end. 

By this time the Portuguese began to appreciate the im- 
portance of Brazil, and King John IV conferred upon his heir 
the title of "Prince of Brazil." Following the war with the 
Dutch the Portuguese government was unable to enforce the ex- 



90 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

elusive commercial policy, so dear to both Portugal and Spain, 
for treaties with England and Holland had been made, allowing 
them trade privileges. As a result of this more liberal policy 
Brazil experienced a great wave of prosperity. Population 

rapidly increased, new towns sprang up, and 
Brazil During the by the end of the seventeenth century Brazil 

Seventeenth Century contained a population of seven hundred and 

fifty thousand. The old restrictive policy, 
however, was soon restored, and monopolies were granted to 
certain commercial companies. The Jesuits also became more 
active, and established missions along the valley of the Amazon. 
This activity served to arouse the resentment of the Brazilians, 
who did not object to their activity along the Amazon, but did 
resent their encroachment in the more populous districts. In 
1684 a rebellion broke out against the Jesuits, which proved so 
serious that Portuguese officials became more careful in grant- 
ing favors to the order. 

In the later seventeenth century gold was discovered in 
Brazil. For some years there had been rumors that the Jesuits 
were secretly working gold mines with Indian labor along the 
Rio San Francisco. In 1693 large native nuggets of gold were 
found in Sao Paulo and this news caused great excitement and 
a rush began toward the interior, which threatened to depopu- 
late the settlements along the coast. Even Portugal sent out 

gold-seekers in great numbers. The prov- 
lacoveryo .^^^ ^^ Minas Geraes became a great gold- 

producing center and within fifty years produced seven million 
five hundred thousand ounces. The coming in of so many 
outsiders caused resentment on the part of the Paulists who 
had first discovered the gold, and quarrels soon arose which 
resulted in anarchy and civil war. The government attempted 
to put mining laws into force and collected a tax on every 
slave employed in the mines. Before gold could be exported 
it had to receive the government stamp in government melting 
houses. 

Again in the eighteenth century Brazil was troubled by in- 
vasion of the French. Civil wars also broke out in Pernambuco, 
caused by the corrupt rule of the royal governors. The Brazil- 



PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL 91 

ian sugar planters led the revolt and were successful in over- 
throwing the government. A republic was even proposed, but 

when a new governor came out the insurgents 
^evo Agams a j^j^ down their arms. In the eighteenth 

century Portugal became involved in the 
war of the Spanish Succession as allies of the English and 
Dutch, and in 1710 a French expedition landed at Rio de 
Janeiro and made its way into the center of the town, only to 
be captured a little later by the populace led by the Portuguese 
governor. The Portuguese were very cruel in their treatment 
of the French prisoners, most of them being killed. This 
The French Capture cruelty did not long remain unavenged. The 
of Rio de Janeiro, next year a large French fleet, with six thou- 
^^^""^^ sand troops under the command of Admiral 

Tourin, arrived before Rio de Janeiro, and after days of hard 
fighting the city fell. On the French threatening to burn the 
city a ransom of six hundred and ten thousand crusados and 
five hundred cases of sugar was paid, besides provisions for the 
return voyage. 

In the first part of the eighteenth century Portugal suffered 
under the corrupt rule of John V, one of the most dissipated of 
kings. Corruption also prevailed in Brazil. Brazil was made 
to contribute to the revenues of the mother country, and taxes 
of every description were imposed upon products and people. 
Corraption in the ^^^ trade with European states except Portu- 

Govemments of gal was prohibited. Monopolies were granted 

Portugal and Brazil ^^ ^^^^^ tobacco, and uumerous other articles 

of commerce. Bribe-taking was common among officials, the 
administration of justice was interfered with by the governors, 
who looked after friends and favorites at the expense of justice, 
while every other known form of corruption everywhere pre- 
vailed. 

The last half of the eighteenth century was a period of re- 
form. King John V died in 1750 and the Marquis of Pombal 
completely renovated the administration of both Portugal and 
Brazil. One of the causes of corruption had been the influence 
of the clergy in politics. The Jesuits had also been active in 
resisting reform. The Marquis of Pombal sent over his brother 



92 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

as captain-general of Maranhao and Para, and one of his first 
acts was to deprive the Jesuits of temporal 

The Reforms of ^ _^rv i .^ 

Pombai; the Expui- power. Ihis was lollowed m 1760 by the 
sion of the Jesuits, expulsion of the order from Brazil. Their 
schools, colleges, and churches were confiscated, 
and the Indians whom they had collected into villages were left 
without leaders or teachers, and they either became the prey 
of ruthless settlers or reverted to their savage state. Among 
the reforms of Pombai was his attempt to protect the Indians 
against enslavement. This resulted in greatly increasing the 

number of Negro slaves. With this increased 
Brarii ^^^"^^ *° importation of Negroes intermixture with the 

Negro rapidly followed, and it became com- 
mon for young Brazilians to have Negro mistresses. The 
Dutch had been slaveholders during their occupation of Brazil- 
ian territory, and when they were driven out the Brazihans 
took over their slaves. This led to an increase of Negro impor- 
tation, as did also the discovery of gold. It was not long until 
Negro labor was used everywhere and the Negro became the 
most numerous single element in the population. By the end 
of the eighteenth century twenty thousand slaves were im- 
ported annually into the country and five thousand were sold 
every year in Rio de Janeiro alone. 

As Brazil grew in wealth and population the revenues ob- 
tained by Portugal from her great colony Hkewise increased. 
It has been estimated that between 1728 and 1734 the annual 
sum received by the Portuguese government from Brazil was 
not less than $10,000,000. There were heavy taxes on imports; 
iron and salt were taxed a hundred per cent; the crown received 
Brazu at the Close ^^® royal fifth from the products of the mines, 
of the Eighteenth while trade restrictions of every variety ham- 
^^^*^^ pered the free interchange of products. In 

spite of these absurd restrictions the foreign trade of Brazil at 
the close of the colonial period amounted to some $20,000,000 
annually and the population had grown to over 2,000,000, dis- 
tributed as follows: 430,000 whites, 1,500,000 Negroes, 700,000 
Indians. There were 12 cities and 66 towns. Rio de Janeiro 
was the largest city with a population of some 30,000. Social 



PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL 93 

life was of the most degraded kind, and even wealthy planters 
lived in filth and degradation. The church was corrupt, while 
lazy and immoral priests swarmed the streets of the cities and 
towns. 

READING REFERENCES 

Satisfactory accounts of the colonization of Brazil may be found in 
History of the South American Republics, by Thomas C. Dawson (1906), 
Vol. I, pp. 287-400; and very briefly in Brazil, by P. Denis Unwin, 
London, 1911). 

A brief account of the colonization of Brazil may also be found in the 
Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, 34-59; IV, 703-759; V, 675-780; VI, 
chap. 12). 



CHAPTER VIII 
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 

The colonial government instituted by Spain for her Amer- 
ican colonies was in many respects the most highly developed 
system of colonial control ever put into operation. To say, 
however, that it was highly developed does not necessarily 
Importance of the ^^V^y ^^at it was highly successful. On the 
Spanish Colonial other hand, we must not jump to the con- 

^^*®'° elusion that it was a complete failure. Spain 

was one of the first modern nations to establish a colonial em- 
pire and a definite colonial system. For three hundred years 
she governed one of the most widely extended empires that have 
ever existed. For these reasons her system of colonial govern- 
ment deserves our respect and should commend our study. 

To get the best understanding of Spain's colonial system it 
will be well for us to know something of the kind of institutions 
which prevailed in Castile, especially at the time the colonies 
were established. Castile had been instrumental in the dis- 
coioniai Institutions ^overy and colonization of the Indies, and 
Modeled After Those the government devised for the colonies was 
of Castile modeled closely after the institutions of that 

realm. At the time of the discovery of America the government 
of Castile was undergoing a thorough reorganization at the 
hands of the Catholic kings, and several of the institutions, 
afterward transferred to the colonies, were in the formative 
stage. 

At the head of the Castilian realm stood the sovereign, in 
theory supreme and absolute. In former times the Cortes had 
been a check upon the power of the sovereign, but under Fer- 
dinand and Isabella it had lost much of its authority. Of greatest 
importance in the administration of the gov- 
^eCovllas^^ ^^ emment were the councils. There came to 
be eight of these, but the Council of Castile 
was the earliest organized and remained by far the most im- 

94 



COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 95 

portant. Every member of the councils was appointed directly 
by the sovereigns and could be dismissed at their pleasure. 
"Through them the sovereigns carried their absolutism into 
every department and subdivision of the conduct of the gov- 
ernment." When the time came to organize a government for 
the colonies the monarchs simply formed another council, the 
Council of the Indies, which was modeled after the Council of 
Castile. 

Among the institutions which underwent reorganization at 
the hands of the Catholic kings were the tribunals of justice. 
At first there was but one royal court, known as the royal 
audiencia, but later other courts were formed, all of which were 
called audiencias. Besides being courts of ju^ice, the provin- 
„, . ,. . cial audiencias had legislative and adminis- 

The Audiencias . ™ . , . , . , . 

trative functions, though m their administra- 
tive capacity they were subject to instructions from the king. 
^They also decided elections and confirmed judges. In their 
judicial capacity the audiencias were divided into a civil and 
criminal court, each of which was presided over by a judge. 
In every audiencia there was an officer called a fiscal, who was 
the prosecutor, and also certain other officials corresponding 
somewhat to our sheriff and constable. 

Before the time of Ferdinand and Isabella the government of 
Spain was greatly decentralized, and there was much trouble in 
collecting the taxes and enforcing justice. It became necessary 
to introduce certain officials whose duty it was to look after 
the royal interests in the provinces and cities. This new officer 

was the corregidor. In 1480 they were sent 

The Corregidor • . . 

for the first time to all Castilian cities, and 
from that time this institution was extended over the entire 
realm. The corregidor became extremely powerful and exer- 
cised military, judicial, financial, and executive functions. His 
duty was to see that all the laws of the kingdom were enforced 
and that the king was not defrauded of either the honor or 
taxes due him. The district over which he presided was called 
a corregimiento. The corregidor has been described as the 
"omnicompetent servant of an absolute king." 
In connection with this new official, the corregidor, there 



96 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

developed another institution known as the residencia. This 

was an enforced residence of an official, for several months 

after his term of office closed, so as to give any person in his 

district, who had a grievance, an opportunity 

The Residencia '. • + i • o-u -J 

01 entermg suit against him. The corregidor 
was subject to this enforced residence, as he was always ap- 
pointed from without his corregimiento. The corregidor, how- 
ever, was not the only official subject to this regulation, but it 
was later extended to several others. The purpose of the 
residencia seems to have been two fold — ^to secure the highest 
possible efficiency among officials and to enable the crown to 
gain a further hold over officials who represented them at a 
distance. 

The tendency in the government of Spain after the accession 
of Ferdinand and Isabella was toward centralization. Reforms 
increasing the royal power were introduced from the beginning 
Tendency Toward ^f the reign of the Catholic kings. The mon- 
centraiization in the archs, howevcr, uever got ovcr this suspicion 
Spanish Government ^-^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^^^ defrauded by the pro- 
vincial and district officials, and for this reason officers were 
appointed whose duty it was to watch other officials. One 
office was set over against another, and powers, duties, and 
privileges were vaguely defined. 

The machinery of government, already developed or in the 
process of development, in the mother country was transferred 
to the colonies. The difficulties in the administration of col- 
onies so vast, and so far away, were extremely great. The 
operation of the laws was slow and cumbersome, while official 
"activities on either side of the ocean were only too often 
shacklpd by red tape and routine, or else smothered under 
mountains of documents." 

When Pope Alexander VI issued the papal bull, after the 
first voyage of Columbus, he conveyed to Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella the new lands, and nothing was said about the Spanish 
nation. Thus from the beginning America was considered the 
property of the Spanish sovereigns and the administration of 
the affairs of the colonies was carried on with this presumption. 
From a strictly legal point of view, Mexico, Peru, and later 



COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 97 

the other states of equal dignity, appear as kingdoms in a per- 
„ . . , ^ sonal union with the kingdom of Spain, rather 

Position of the i • • i i- . 

Spanish Sovereigns than as colonies m the Ordinary meanmg of 
in the Government that term. "The king of Spain bore much 

of the Colonies . , , • , , , 

the same relation to the colonies that he bore 
to the kingdom of Spain itself." The regular governing agen- 
cies in Spain, however, had nothing to do with the government 
of the colonies. New and special agencies were created to 
assist the king in the governing of his vast colonial kingdoms. 

First in rank among these special governing agencies for the 
colonies stands the Council of the Indies. Its beginning dates 
from 1493, when Juan de Fonseca was appointed to assist the 
admiral in preparing for his second voyage. In affairs pertain- 
ing to the Indies this council was supreme. It had sole right 
of making laws for the Spanish possessions; it was a court of 
last resort for all cases pertaining to America; while it advised 
the king on all questions relating to the ad- 
in^es°°°" ° * ministration of American affairs. It early be- 
came the custom to appoint persons as 
members of the council who had seen service either in America 
or in the Philippines. The council became fully organized in 
1542. Its meeting place was Seville. One of its duties was to 
collect all available information about the Indies; another was 
to serve as a nominating board for "all civil and ecclesiastical 
officers in the Indies." In the course of two hundred years the 
legislation of this body was collected into a body of law known 
as the "Laws of the Indies," which dealt with every duty and 
right of officials and inhabitants. 

Besides the Council of the Indies, another body was 
created to superintend the economic affairs of the colonies. 
TMs body was called the Casa de Contratacion, or Indian 
House, and was organized at Seville in 1503, where a house was 
especially built for its use. The general purpose of this body ' 
was to give the king a rigid monopoly of all colonial trade. It 
The Casa de iook account of everything pertaining to the 

Contratacio'n, or economic affairs of the Indies. It granted 

dian House licenses to those going out to the Indies; it 

supervised the equipping of ships; gave direction to their load- 



98 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

ing and unloading; in short, its officials supervised every detail 
of the Indies trade. The officers of the Indian House were a 
president, treasurer, secretary, agent, three judges, and an at- 
torney. Their duties were prescribed to the last detail and 
they were hedged about with all manner of restrictions. We 
will have occasion to describe the Indian House more fully in a 
future chapter. 

During the process of settlement and exploration the chief 
governmental authority in America rested in the hands of a 
military governor, called the adelantado. In Spain this title 
The Earuest Colonial ^^s given the military governor of a border 
Official; the province. Columbus was given this title, as 

well as most of the other foimders of colonies 
in America. After the period of settlement was passed the 
authority in the colony passed usually to the audiencia, which 
often performed all the functions of government. 

When fully organized, the heads of the governments in Amer- 
ica were the viceroys. In 1574 the Spanish possessions in 
America were described as consisting of two kingdoms: New 
Spain, which included Mexico, Central America, and the Is- 
lands; and Peru, which included all Spanish territory in South 
America. These two kingdoms were ruled over by two vice- 
roys, who were the personal representatives 
F^ctionT^""^^' of the king, and performed all the royal 
functions, as though the king were present 
and reigning in person. The viceroy kept a court modeled after 
that of Spain; he exercised power of pardon; presided over the 
audiencia, which acted as his council; kept a record of the 
distribution of the Indians, and acted as judge in cases where 
they were involved. His power was checked by the audiencia, 
which in cases of dispute could refer matters to the Council of 
the Indies. The viceroy of Peru was considered the most im- 
portant, and it became common for the Mexican viceroy to 
be promoted to the Peruvian viceroyalty. 

The colonial official ranking next to the viceroy was the 
captain-general. The functions of the cap- 

The Captain-General . -i i /• i • 

tain-general were similar to those of the vice- 
roy, except that he ruled over a smaller territory. Thus 



COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 99 

Chile became a captaincy-general in 1778, and was practically- 
independent of Peru, though nominally it was still a part 
of the viceroyalty. Venezuela was created a captaincy-general 
in 1773 and later Cuba and Guatemala. 

The governor of the province, the corregidor, came next. 

The province in turn was divided into partidos, at the head of 

which were officials called alcalde mayors, who exercised 

poHce, military, and judicial functions. In 

Local Government in /i i*ix ixin •! ixt 

the Colonies "^"^ colomal towns, both Spanish and Indian, 

there was a considerable degree of self- 
government, following the example set by towns and cities in 
Spain. The municipal councils, or the cabildos, generally con- 
sisted of six regidores, or aldermen, and two alcaldes, or jus- 
tices. In many cases the regidores and the alcaldes were 
elected by the citizens of the towns, though in the course of 
time these offices became hereditary or were sold to the highest 
bidder. 

Besides the divisions into viceroyalties, captaincy-generals, 
provinces, and districts, the colonies were divided into audien- 
cias. In the course of the seventeenth century there came to 
be eleven of these in America. "Strictly speaking, an audien- 
cia was a body of magistrates, constituting at once a supreme 
court and a board of administration for the province; but the 
designation was applied equally to the area over which its 
jurisdiction extended." If the audiencia had 
A^ienc^*^ ^^ ^*® presiding officer a "governor and cap- 

tain-general," the area over which it had 
authority bore the name "captaincy-general" or "presidency" 
as well as "audiencia." If, however, the audiencia "was pre- 
sided over by a jurist, the area was then termed a 'presidency' 
in a narrower sense." The number belonging to an audiencia 
depended upon its position and importance. The Audiencia of 
Mexico consisted of four oidores, or civil judges; four alcaldes 
de crimen, or criminal judges; and two prosecuting attorneys. 
The audiencias acted as councils for the viceroys and captain- 
generals, and during an interregnum assumed all the functions 
of executive administration. 

In 1786 still another administrative division was made in 



iOO A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

the Spanish colonies known as intendencies. At the head of 
each was an intendent. He directly represented the crown 

in the financial administration, his chief 
fcte^JSf ''""*""' business bemg to see that the king got all 

that was due him from the colonies. He was 
given a large degree of independence in the management of 
his office. Intendencies were created because of the corruption 
of the corregidors, and it was expected that the intendent 
would bring about reform in the administration. 

The Spanish institution known as the residencia was likewise 
introduced into the colonies. As a colonial institution it pro- 
vided that all administrative officials should remain in the 
„^ „ . colony a certain period after their terms of 

The Residencia "^ ^ j . • n .1 

office were over, m order to give all those 
who had grievances against them a chance to bring charges. 
A special court was set up, consisting of one or more commis- 
sioners, who heard all complaints and forwarded them to the 
Council of the Indies, where a decision was made. 

Portugal never developed a colonial system comparable to 
that of Spain. Several councils in Lisbon had to do with colo- 
nial affairs, though the Council of State exercised the most 
authority, appointing the officers of high rank for the colonies. 
At first Brazil was divided into feudal divi- 
Admi^teation ** ^ sions Called Captaincies, in which the pro- 
prietor exercised complete authority. In 
1548 a captain-general was appointed who brought the prov- 
inces under his authority. In 1763 a viceroy was appointed 
for Brazil, and Rio de Janeiro was made the seat of his gov- 
ernment. Under him were the several captains-general, al- 
though they manifested a considerable independence, and did 
not hesitate to oppose undue interference from the central 
authority in local affairs. 

READING REFERENCES 

Most serviceable accounts of the Spanish Administrative system will 
be found in Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, by Bernard Mosea 
(G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1898), Chapters II and IV; and in Spain in Amer- 
ica, by E. G. Bourne (Harpers, 1906), Chapter XV. 



COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 101 

A brief but clear account will be foimd in Latin America, by W. R. 
Shepherd (Henry Holt & Co., 1914), Chapter II. 

For the institutional backgroimd of the Spanish colonies, The Rise of 
the Spanish Empire, by R. B. Merriman (The Macmillan Company, 1918), 
will be found especially valuable, particularly Vol. II, Chapter XV. 

For the student who reads Spanish the Recopiladdn de Leyes de los 
Reynos de las Indias (The Collection of Spanish Colonial Law), 1844, may 
be studied with profit. 



CHAPTER IX 

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN COLONIAL LATIN 
AMERICA 

I. The Trade System ■ 

The Spanish colonists not only brought with them their reli- 
gion and forms of government, but also their economic ideas 
and practices. And yet the economic ideas entertained by 
Spain in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries 
were much like those held by other European peoples. The 
chief difference between Spain and England, in their economic 
Spain's Ec»nomic dealings with their colonies, was that Spain 
Program in Respect wasHablc to Carry out her economic program 
o er o omes ^^^ enforced her restrictive trade laws, while 

England passed similar laws but was entirely unable to enforce 
them. As far as intention was concerned, England was little 
different from Spain. As Bancroft says, "the mercantile re- 
strictive system was the superstition of the age," and was held, 
not alone by Spain and Portugal, but also by the other col- 
onizing nations of western Europe. The colonies were con- 
sidered to exist for the benefit of the mother country, and no 
nation was more successful in carrying out this mistaken idea 
than Spain. 

In the year 1503 there was organized in Seville what was 
known as the Casa de Contrataci6n, or Indian House. The 
purpose of this organization has already been explained. When 
the Indian House was established it was provided that all trade 
of the Indies was to be confined to the one Spanish port of 
Seville. That city maintained the monopoly of trade with 
„, , ^. _ little interruption down to 1717, when it was 

The Indian House i y-. t i 

removed to Cadiz, because ships no longer 
could make their way up the Guadalquivir. In the early 
years, before the gold and silver of Peru and Mexico came to 
be an important part of the returning cargoes, ships sailed for 

102 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 103 

the Indies singly. The development of piracy, however, soon 
caused the Indian House to decree that henceforth ships must 
sail in fleets. The fleet system was oflScially established in 
1561. Down to 1748 two fleets went annually, one bound for 
Vera Cruz in New Spain, the other to Porto Bello on the 
isthmus. 

When the fleets arrived at their American destination there 
was inaugurated at each place a great fair, for the sale and 
distribution of the goods brought over. The Porto Bello fair 
was the largest and most important, due to the fact that it was 
the distributing center for all the Peruvian trade. On the 
arrival of the Porto Bello fleet those who desired to purchase 
assembled from all the colonies in South America. Ordinarily, 
the town was small and extremely unhealthy, and during the 
forty days of the fair it was crowded far beyond its capacity. 
The Fair System as Rooms for living rented at $125 for the fair, 
Practiced in the while display rooms for goods commanded the 

Spanish Colonies exorbitant rent of from $1,000 to $5,000. 

Food was correspondingly dear, and due to the miserable sani- 
tary conditions and overcrowding, the death rate was extremely 
high. Similar conditions prevailed at Vera Cruz, where in 
1556 four members of an English merchant's family of eight 
died in ten days. Porto Bello was described during fair time 
by one who saw the conditions, as an "open grave." This 
system of distribution raised the price of goods to a tremendous 
figure. Goods intended for Peru after they were purchased at 
Porto Bello were loaded on backs of mules and taken across the 
isthmus. They were then reloaded upon vessels bound down 
the coast, and after months of toil and danger finally reached 
their destination, where they sold for from five to six hundred 
per cent above their original cost. 

For a long time the Indian House was the eflficient agent in 
carrying out this rigid system of commercial control. By the 
beginning of the eighteenth century, however, changes were 
taking place which rendered it more and more difl&cult for 
Spain to maintain this strict monopoly. By the treaty Cf 
Utrecht (1713) England obtained the contract to furnish slaves 
to the Spanish colonies, and at the same time she obtained the 



104 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

privilege of sending one ship, of five hundred tons burden, a 
year to trade at Porto Bello. England took full advantage 
of this rift in the Spanish trade monopoly 
the Spanish Trade and before long was unloading whole fleets 
Monopoly; oyer the deck of this one ship. All trade 

Contraband Trade • i , i r. T 

With the southern part of the continent 
under this system was compelled to pass through Porto Bello 
and Peru. This was, of course, greatly to the disadvantage of 
Buenos Ayres. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
however, Buenos Ayres was becoming a great contraband port. 
It was not, indeed, until that city became a great smuggling 
port that it began to prosper and grow. After the English and 
Dutch established colonies in the West Indies, smuggling like- 
wise became common along the northern coast of South Amer- 
ica. The English and Dutch colonists served as centers for this 
trade. In 1762 the English captured Habana, and that port 
was opened to English ships and the great possibility of free 
trade was at once shown. Charles III of Spain, three years 
later, opened up the trade of the Indies to eight Spanish ports 
besides Cadiz. In 1778 commerce with the Indies was de- 
clared free to all Spanish ports, and Buenos Ayres, Peru, and 
Chile were allowed to trade directly with Spain. 

II. Agricultube est the Colonies 
"The principal pursuits of Spanish America were farming, 
grazing, and mining. The romance of the conquest and of the 
silver fleets did much to give disproportionate prominence to 
the production of gold and silver in popular accounts of Span- 
ish colonization." The bulkier agricultural products were not 
raised for exportation, while the products of the mines found 
their way to Spain in vast quantities. For this reason mining 
received much more attention in books. Yet by far the largest 
majority of people in Latin America lived by agricultural pur- 
importance of suits, and at the beginning of the nineteenth 

Agriculture in the century the value of the products of the soil 
Spanish Colonies j^^^ |^g^^ estimated to have been one third 

greater than the yield of the mines. When the Spaniards con- 
quered Mexico and Peru they found large populations living 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 105 

mostly by agricultural pursuits. The Aztecs cultivated such 
products as the banana, cocoa, vanilla bean, used then, as now, 
for flavoring, Indian corn, and the maguey, from which the 
Aztecs obtained food, drink, clothing, and writing material. 
The Peruvians were also an agricultural race and understood 
both the use of irrigation and fertilizer. They raised potatoes, 
Indian corn, and cotton. 

Cortes recognized the importance of agriculture, and recom- 
mended that the crown require all vessels coming to America 
to bring over a certain quantity of seeds and plants. Every 
grant of land was made on condition that the proprietor plant 
a specified number of vines. Other regulations, protecting the 
a^icultural interests of the country, were drawn up by Cortes. 
Cortes himself gave attention to agriculture when he retired 
to his estates, where he planted sugar cane, flax, and hemp, 
built a sugar mill, and imported merino sheep and other cattle. 

The Spaniards made little advance over the 
aScJ^^S America Aztecs and Peruvians in their methods of 

farming. The sharpened stick, the wooden 
shovel, the copper hoe, and sickle of the Aztec were no more 
primitive than the rude plow brought by the Spaniard, and 
still in use at the close of the eighteenth century. The chief 
interest in the islands soon came to be the production of sugar. 
Sugar culture began in Cuba in 1520, the cane being brought 
from Haiti, but until 1553 none was exported. After this, 
however, the industry rapidly increased, and by 1775 there 
were four hundred and seventy-three sugar plantations on the 
island. As we have already observed, agriculture was, from 
the first, the most important industry in Brazil. 

Humboldt, the celebrated traveler, who visited Spanish 
America in 1799-1804, has written extensively upon the Span- 
ish colonies. Speaking of agriculture in Mexico, he says, "Har- 
vests are surprising when lands are carefully cultivated, espe- 
cially in those which are watered." Mexican wheat was of the 
best quality and in good years the country produced much 
more Indian com than the people could consume. Mexico was 
also rich in vegetables, nutritive roots, and potatoes. Hum- 
boldt notes the great number of cattle especially along the 



106 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

eastern coast. Many Mexican families possessed from thirty 
to forty thousand head of horses and cattle. 
thTcotS^*'^'^ ™ Mules were common and would have been 
much more numerous if so many had not 
perished through excessive fatigue. The conmierce of Vera 
Cruz alone employed nearly 7,000 annually. The wealth of 
Venezuela was entirely agricultiiral or from cattle. In 1880 
there were exported from Venezuela 30,000 mules, 174,000 ox- 
hides, and 3,500,000 pounds of tasjo, or dried meat. Ulloa 
was much impressed with the agricultural prosperity of Peru. 
Along the Salto, an irrigated valley, he saw maize, fruits, and 
vegetables produced in the greatest plenty. Cattle-raising was 
everywhere an important industry and beef was very cheap. 
In one instance a herd of six thousand cattle sold for $2.25 a 
head. Large individual fortunes were not uncommon in Latin 
America. Thomas Gage, an English friar, speaks of farmers 
worth from 20,000 to 40,000 ducats, and even Indians worth 
from 10,000 to 20,000. 

III. Mining 
Stories of the fabulous wealth of America began to be cir- 
culated immediately on its discovery, and every Spaniard was 
on the lookout for treasure. Columbus on his last voyage 
found the natives of Honduras wearing gold ornaments, and 
he heard reports of distant realms where gold was to be found 
in abundance. In the early years, however, very little gold or 
The First Gold and silver was obtained from the new dominions 
saver Found by the of Spain; indeed, it was not until the con- 
^^^ ^ quest of Mexico that large treasure was dis- 

covered. The first gold and silver obtained was in the shape of 
ornaments and vessels used in the native temples. The ransom 
of Atahualpa consisted of plate, temple decorations, golden 
ears of corn in cases of silver, etc. All of these, except the 
finest specimens — which were set aside for royal presents — 
were melted down into ingots of uniform size. The Spaniards 
made very little improvement on the native mining methods, 
and the returns from the first mining ventures were not' large. 
The Indians obtained their gold by skimming the surface of the 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 107 

ground or washing the sand in the streams. Humboldt says, 
however, that the Aztecs were versed in the 
in ae conies "^"^ building of Subterranean shafts. The natives 
smelted their ore in a crude manner, using 
blowpipes of bamboo to increase the heat. In Peru ore was 
smelted in small round furnaces, fed by charcoal and sheep's 
excrements. 

The first of the great mines of Mexico were discovered in 
1539, among which were Taxco, Sultepec, and Tzumpanco. 
The rich silver mine of Potosi was found (1545) by an Indian, 
while clambering up the mountain in pursuit of a llama. 
At that time it was the richest mine in the world. The discov- 
ery of these exceedingly rich mines gave rise to exaggerated 
reports as to the richness of ores. The number of mines, how- 
Discovery of Rich ever, steadily advanced with a corresponding 
Mines, and New increase of output. The mines were a great 

^ ^ *• ^ source of private wealth and from them the 

crown obtained great revenue, through, the royal fifth. At first 
only the richest ores were worked, especially in those regions 
where fuel was scarce, but in 1557 a new method of extracting 
ores, by the use of quicksilver, was discovered, which rendered 
ores, formerly considered worthless, valuable. After this dis- 
covery Spain made a monopoly of quicksilver, partly for the 
revenue and partly to keep track of the amount of metal pro- 
duced. Miners made returns in proportion to the quantity of 
quicksilver distributed. When mercury deposits were discov- 
ered in New Spain, the government extended its monopoly to 
include these mines also. 

In 1800 the mining region of New Spain covered about 12,225 
square leagues, according to Humboldt. This was divided into 
thirty-seven departments with about five hundred subdivisions, 
or reales de mines, each of which comprised about 3,000 miners. 

Mining Laws; "^^ ^'^^'^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^ °^ ^^^^ governing mines, 

Returns from the known as "Ordonanzas de la Mineria de 

^"^^^ Nueva Espana," was drawn up, which pro- 

vided for a general council to be made up of representatives 
from each of the thirty-seven districts. This body was to look 
after the interests of the mines and miners. Robertson esti- 



108 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

nates that the quantity of gold and silver entered annually 
into the ports of Spain from 1492 to 1850 was about equal to 
$20,000,000. Humboldt estimates the annual average pro- 
duction from the mines from 1493 as follows: 

1493-1500 250,000 pesos 

1500-1545 3,000,000 pesos 

1545-1600 11,000,000 pesos 

1600-1700 16,000,000 pesos 

1700-1750 22,500,000 pesos 

1750-1803 35,300,000 pesos 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the total annual 
production has been calculated at 43,500,000 pesos, or about 
ten times the known production of the rest of the world. 

IV. Roads and Travel 
"An important difference between the Spanish and English 
settlers in America is that in the one case the settlers have 
found or made roads over which they could drag their belong- 
ings on carts, or wagons, while in the other case they have been 
content to carry their outfit on backs of mules and have not 
insisted that their settlements should be connected with the 
rest of the world by carriage roads."^ The chief method of 
travel in colonial Latin America was by mule back, though in 
the early years of Spanish colonization Indian carriers were 
used extensively. Goods were brought to and from the fairs 
by these two means. The Indian carrier traveled rapidly, 

bearing a hundred pounds upon his head, 
Lt^'^^etica''^ "* while the mule did not carry more than twice 

that amount. The difficulty of the roads 
among the mountains was increased by neglect. Ulloa, de- 
scribing his experience in Peru, says, "If a tree . . . happens 
to fall across the road and stops up the passage, no person will 
be at the pains to remove it, and though all passing that way 
are put to no small difficulty by such an obstacle, it is suffered 
to continue; neither the government nor those who frequent 
the road taking any care to have it drawn away." When the 

1 Bernard Moses, "Economic Conditions of Spain in the Sixteenth Century," Ameiicai^ 
Historical Association Report, 1893, p. 130. 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 109 

tree is so large as to fill the entire passage, the Indians cut away 
enough of the trunk to permit the mules to leap over, after 
being unloaded. This causes delay and perhaps damage to the 
goods, but no one ever thinks of entirely removing the obstacle. 
Such cases, he says, are general all over the country, especially 
where roads lead over mountains and through forests.* 

The common roads of Cuba were little more than open por- 
tions of the country without grading or repairs of any kind. 
During the rainy season they were impass- 
able, and transportation of sugar for only 
short distances was very costly. Because of the infrequency of 
travel in the island there were no hotels or taverns. Hum- 
boldt observes that the best roads were found in the western 
part of the island and as one traveled east the roads became 
steadily worse. 

Wherever possible water transportation was used. Ulloa de- 
scribes two kinds of boats upon the Chagres in Panama, one 
being a kind of raft called a chatas, of great breadth and draw- 
ing little water, while the other was made from one piece of 
timber. Negroes were used in propelling these boats. The 
Indians of Peru had rafts which they propelled with sails, while 
the Indians about Lake Titicaca made a kind of straw boat 
for use on the lake. The Paraguay, the Uruguay, and the 
Parana were convenient highways, not only for small boats, 
but likewise for ships, as were also the Orinoco, Amazon, and 
the Magdalena. 

Travel between Vera Cruz and Mexico City, toward the 
close of the colonial period, was rendered much more conven- 
ient and easy because of the construction of an excellent high- 
way over the mountains. This road was hned with taverns 
and lodging houses supported by the king. Travel was either 
by mule or a kind of sedan chair, which was 
Roads «id Travel ia carried by the Indians. In 1793 six coaches 
were placed upon the streets of Mexico, and 
in the next year the proprietors were granted a concession to 
open up a stage line between Mexico City and Guadalajara, 



1 Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, Voj'ages, pp. 273, 274. 



110 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The stages were to run weekly and were not to carry more than 
four passengers. The price for one passenger to Guadalajara 
was $200; two passengers $105 each, and four were to pay 
$62.50 each. The return was half price. Between 1803 and 
1812 a fine highway was built between Mexico and Vera Cruz 
at a cost of 3,000,000 pesos. 

The most important overland routes in South America were 

from Buenos Ayres to Santiago de Chile, and from Buenos Ayres 

to Lima. The fact that no trade could come in or leave by the 

port of Buenos Ayres compelled the La Plata merchants to 

resort to Lima for their goods. The distance 

South American -i , -r» a i t • • i 

Overland Routes between Buenos Ayres and Lima is nearly 

twenty-eight hundred miles, and the usual 
method of travel over this long road was by slow oxcart carry- 
ing about five thousand pounds. After 1748 taverns and post 
houses were established along the route and carriages might 
be obtained. Travel over this long trail, however, was always 
exceedingly expensive and most inconvenient. The route from 
Buenos Ayres to Santiago was over the pampas until Mendoza 
was reached, whence the traveler exchanged his carriage for a 
mule. In the trip to Lima the carriage was left at Salta, where 
the traveler mounted a mule to make his way over the moun- 
tains.^ 

V. Labor and Slaves 

Labor in colonial Latin America was performed by the In- 
dians and Negro slaves. At first the Spaniards depended upon 
the Indians to work their plantations and mines. This, how- 
ever, proved extremely destructive of Indian life. The en- 
comienda system, whereby colonists were 

Encomienda and Mita , t t i • ■ i i i i 

granted Indians to cultivate the land, be- 
came universal throughout Latin America. The mita was a 
bodily service demanded of the Indians. The Indian population 
was divided into seven parts and every mine owner had the 
right to demand from the district the number of Indians he 
required. Every male had to render this service, which lasted; 
six months. At the end of that time, if the Indian survived, he^ 




1 Bernard Moses, The Spanish Dependencies in South America, vol. ii, pp. 382-395. 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 111 

had accumulated a debt to the proprietor which he could not 
pay, and as a result he remained in perpetual servitude. So 
destructive of life was the mita that the calling out of an Indian 
for this service was considered equivalent to a sentence of death, 
and before setting out he disposed of his belongings, and his 
relatives went through the funeral service before him. It has 
been estimated that in Peru alone, in the course of three hun- 
indian Labor ^^^ years, the mita claimed eight million 

victims. The Indians working under this 
system received about ten cents a day. In Peru and Quito the 
mita system was extended to the farms and factories, and here the 
Indians were reduced to practical slavery. They were under- 
fed, overworked, and in every way mistreated. The workers 
in the royal tobacco factories in Mexico received about thirty 
cents a day, while a laborer in Venezuela received fifteen sous 
a day, besides his food. 

Negro slaves were early introduced into the islands. We 
have records of Negroes being sent to Haiti as early as 1502, 
while in 1510 Ferdinand directed the Indian House to send 
over fifty slaves. Soon traffic in slaves between the Guinea 
coast and America was under way. The Spaniards found the 
Negro much more efficient than the Indian and the demand 
for them greatly increased. Las Casas, the apostle to the 
Indians, favored the use of Negroes, and finally succeeded in 
persuading the government to protect the 
Slave* Trair *°* *^* Indians by sending out four thousand Ne- 
groes. This was the beginning of a settled 
policy. The government supplied the slaves to her colonies by 
letting a contract, called the asientOj by which a certain number 
of slaves were to be suppliedTyearly. This contract was held 
by various holders, and finally, by the treaty of Utrecht 
(1713), came into the possession of the English government. 
During much of the time previous to this it had been held 
by Portuguese. The contract was immensely profitable and 
the holders were willing to pay great sums to the Spanish 
government for the privileges it gave. Besides this legiti- 
mate slave trade there grew up an illicit trade in slaves, 
begun by John Hawkins in 1562, which brought to Spanish 



112 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

America several hundreds and even thousands of slaves each 
year. 

Negro slavery, however, never obtained a great hold upon 
Latin America outside the islands, the northern coast regions 
of South America, and Brazil. Indians continued to perform 
much of the work in New Spain, and in the census of 1793 
only six thousand slaves were returned. Peru had many more 
Negroes than Mexico. At the end of the eighteenth century there 
were nearly a hundred thousand free Negroes and slaves in Peru. 
As a whole the Spaniards were mild masters, and the Spanish 
slave code was much less severe than that of either the French 
or the Enghsh. In Peru the law allowed a slave to work for 
Number and himself Several hours each day. He had the 

Treatment of Negro right to appeal to the courts if cruclly treated 
^^*^®® and might there be declared free. Negroes 

might question the legality of their enslavement, and the 
courts were ready to hear their cause; in fact, Spanish law and 
administration favored emancipation wherever possible. In 
consequence of this liberal and humane treatment the number 
of free Negroes tended to rapidly increase. The slave popula- 
tion of Cuba, Haiti, and Jamaica was large. In 1823 Hum- 
boldt gives the total population of Cuba at 715,000, of whom 
260,000 were slaves and 130,000 free Negroes; at the same 
time Jamaica had a total population of 402,000, with 342,000 
slaves, 35,000 free Negroes, and only about 25,000 whites. An 
adult male slave in Cuba at the end of the eighteenth century 
was worth from $450 to $500; a newly imported African from 
$370 to $400. The cost of keeping a Negro slave in Cuba was 
from $45 to $50 a year, or about twenty-five cents a day. 

VI. Taxes, Imposts, and Revenue 
To the North American, familiar with the colonial history of 
the thirteen English colonies, the number and amount of taxes 
collected by Spain from her American possessions seems un- 
believable. Perhaps the greatest contrast between the col- 
onies of England and those of Spain lies here. "England ob- 
tained no direct revenue from her colonies, and even the famous 
Stamp Act, which was the immediate cause of the Revolution, 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 113 

was not intended to produce revenue for England. Rather, the 
EngUsh and Spanish Stamp Act was passed to help pay the ex- 
Coionies Contrasted penses of maintaining English soldiers in 
m espec o axes America, whom England placed there for 
America's protection* On the other hand, Spain obtained vast 
financial returns from her American possessions, and at the 
close of the eighteenth century she was utilizing every possible 
resource for obtaining increased revenue. "No possible oppor- 
tunity of drawing wealth into the royal exchequer was thrown 
away; luxuries, industries, and vices were alike made to con- 
tribute their quota. By the end of the eighteenth century 
there were more than sixty sources from which revenue was 
obtained."^ 

For the first few years of the colonial period the principal 
source of revenue was Indian tribute. The Indians who had 
made war upon the Spaniards were the first made to pay this 
tax. Later, when Montezuma became the vassal of the king of 
Spain, he sent valuable presents to Charles V, and soon after 
the capture of Mexico an order was issued requiring the In- 
dians to pay a regular sum into the royal treasury. At first 
this tax amounted to one third of all produce, or an equivalent 
in the precious metals. This was far too heavy to be borne 

and was steadily reduced, and finally abol- 
RoyaTpiWi"*^ *°^ ^ ished in 1810. This tax, however, through 

most of the colonial period, was a very im- 
portant source of revenue, and in 1504 a general officer was 
appointed to manage its, collection. Another of the earliest 
taxes imposed was the royal fifth. This was established in 
1504 and required that all products of mines — ^gold, silver, 
quicksilver, tin — as well as all treasure, or treasure trove, was 
to pay a royal tax of one fifth. In 1528 an inspector of mines 
was appointed for Mexico, part of whose duty was to collect 
this tax. In some instances it was found to be discouraging to 
mines and was reduced to one tenth in 1572, and toward the 
close of the eighteenth century it was still further reduced to 
three per cent on gold and eleven per cent on silver. 



» H. H. Bancroft, Mexico, vol. iii, pp. 655ff. 



114 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The most profitable of all taxes was the alcavala. This was 
a tax on sales, which had been known in Spain since the middle 
of the fourteenth century. In 1568 Philip II decided to intro- 
duce the tax into the Indies, though it was not actually col- 
lected in Mexico until 1574 and in Peru in 

The Alcavala ^ . , 

1591. In 1588 it was imposed upon the 
Indians. This was a very burdensome tax. The smallest 
articles and the commonest necessities of life, as they passed 
from one owner to another, were taxed over and over again. 
On property like land, which sold but seldom, it was not bur- 
densome, but upon small articles of merchandise which changed 
hands frequently, the tax soon absorbed the value of the ar- 
ticle. At first the tax was two per cent, but later it was doubled 
and trebled. 

Another fruitful source of revenue was the maritime dues, 
or import and export duties. The import duty on cotton 
and woolen goods and articles of food was 353^ per cent; on 

linen and silk articles, 29^. Some articles 
D^tie^ and Export -paid fixed duties, such as flour, which paid 

$2 per barrel if shipped from Spain, and 
$10.75 if from a foreign port. Export duties were imposed 
arbitrarily without any regard to the value of goods. Coffee paid 
20 cents a quintal; sugar, 873>-^ cents a box; and cigars 75 cents 
per thousand. Besides tonnage duties were collected; Spanish 
vessels paid 623/^ cents per ton; foreign vessels, $1.50 per ton. 

Besides the three great internal taxes, Indian tributes, the 
royal fifth and the alcavala, there were many others. For 
every head of beef butchered $3.50 was paid; for every sheep 

and goat, 37 V$ cents; for every arroba of 

other Internal Taxes . , , -n! c 

swme, 3134 cents. Paper tor common use 
was divided into six classes, the taxes on each sheet ranging 
from $8 to five cents. Stamps were used on bills of exchange 
and notes. Judges collected fees; a tax of four per cent was 
levied on cost of judicial proceedings; an impost was levied 
on shops and stores; in short, every possible source of revenue 
was exploited. 

Monopolies conducted by the crown were still another source 
of royal income. Quicksilver was the first of such monopolies. 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 115 

No sooner was the new process of obtaining metals from ores, 
by means of quicksilver, discovered, than the crown seized the 
opportunity of increasing the means of revenue. Gunpowder 
was another monopoly held by the government. At first the 
„ . „ ,. monopoly was sold to the Ortega family, but 

Royal Monopolies . 0.77 

m 1776 the government took it over. A 
monopoly on salt was established in 1580. Tobacco was the 
most productive of the royal monopolies, and tobacco pro- 
duction was prohibited except under contract with the gov- 
ernment, and all tobacco factories were directly under 
government management. Other government monopolies were 
ice, playing cards, and cock pits. In 1769 a government lottery 
was established and the profits from this source alone in 1798 
were $109,255. Pulque, the native drink, paid a heavy tax, as 
did also other liquors. 

The church was also made to contribute her quota to the 
royal income. The chief revenue from this source was from 
the "Bull of Cruzada." This, as described by Robertson, 
"contained an absolution from past offenses by the pope, and 
among other things a permission to eat several kinds of pro- 
hibited food during Lent and other fast days." The bulls 
were very widely sold, the monks extolling their virtues "with 
all the fervor of interested eloquence, and were purchased by 
every class of society. The price varied according to the rank 

of the purchaser. The bull was first pub- 
church^^ °™ ^ lished in Spain in 1533. They were divided 

into two classes, bulas de vivos, dispensa- 
tions for the living, and bulas de difuntos, which friends and 
relatives purchased for deceased persons. In New Spain dur- 
ing one sale 2,649,325 bulls were sold, and the same year 1,172,- 
953 were sold in Peru. Church tithes were also another source 
of revenue for the king. In 1501 the pope granted the king 
of Spain the right of collecting church tithes in the Indies. At 
first the tithes were devoted entirely to the church, but later 
part of these dues found their ways into the royal treasury." 
"Everything from silk and cocoa, to lentils and pot herbs," 
paid the church tithe, all of which, we must remember, was in 
addition to the other taxes imposed. 



116 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

And even yet the list is not complete. There was a tax on 
slaves imported; offices were sold to the highest bidder; many 

nonsalaried administrative officials collected 

fees for their services, as did also nonsalaried 
judicial officials. At every turn the Spanish colonist met taxes 
and exactions. 

To guard the royal revenue the strictest laws were enacted 
to govern the revenue officials. Treasury officials could not 
engage in commercial enterprises nor work mines. Certain 
offices, such as that of corregidor and alcalde mayor, were 
closed against them, nor could they hold Indians in encomienda. 

The safe where the royal money was kept 
offidais'^*^"^ ^^^ three locks, each with a separate key, 

and each of the three chiefs of the depart- 
ment held a key, so that the safe could not be unlocked imless 
all three were present. And even the office door where the 
safe was kept had similar locks. Other provisions, prescribing 
most minutely the duties of the treasury officials, limiting the 
action of their sons and daughters, were enacted. And yet all 
these regulations did not keep out corruption nor guard suffi- 
ciently the king's revenue. 

READING REFERENCES 

The best accounts of the Spanish Trade system will be found in Estab- 
lishment of Spanish Rule in America, by Bernard Moses, Chapters III 
and XI; and Spain in America, by E. G. Bourne, Chapter XIX. 

The works of Alexander Humboldt, The Island of Cuba; Political Essay 
on New Spain (3 vols.), and Travels to Equinoctial America, 1799-1804, 
contain much interesting and valuable information relating to economic 
conditions in colonial Latin America. 

History of Mexico, by H. H. Bancroft, Vol. Ill, Chapters XXVIII- 
XXXI, is an excellent account of Mexican conditions. 

South America on the Eve of Emancipation, by Bernard Moses, Chapter 
XIII, is a careful study of colonial industry and commerce, just at the 
close of the seventeenth century. 

Spain in America, by E. G. Bourne, Chapter XVIII, describes con- 
dition of Negro slaves in Latin America. 

Spanish Conquest in America, by Sir Arthur Helps, Vol. I, gives special 
attention to the Indians and the introduction of Negro slaves. 

A Voyage to South America, by Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa (1758), 
2 vols. 



COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 117 

is well worth reading for their account of economic conditions, and espe- 
cially the corruptions prevailing in Peru. 

Spanish Dependencies in South America, by Bernard Moses, Vol. II, 
Chapter XIX, has some interesting information concerning travel and 
transportation. 

Latin America, by W. R. Shepherd, is a brief general account of economic 
conditions in colonial Latin America. 

Trade and Navigation between Spain and' the Indies in the Time of the 
Hapsburgs, by Clarence Henry Haring (Harvard University Press, 1918). 
Chapters of especial interest in this volume are "The Casa de Con- 
trataci6n," "The Precious Metals," and "Ships and Navigators." 



CHAPTER X 
SOCIETY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 

No adequate comprehension of Spanish colonial society, nor, 
indeed, of Latin-American society of to-day, can be obtained 
unless we first understand the relationship of the Spanish 
and Portuguese conquerors with the Indians. We of North 
America are quite apt to conclude at once, without a very care- 
ful investigation, that the Spaniard especially was much more 
cruel in his dealings with the Indians than were our forefathers. 

We are sure, however, that an unpartial stu- 
^ridianr*"*'"* "** dent will, upon close study, come to the 

conclusion that the Spaniard was no worse 
in this respect than the Englishman. This conclusion, how- 
ever, does not relieve the Spaniard of just criticism. Just as 
the Spaniard transferred his political institutions to America, 
so also he brought over his religion, his ideas and ideals. The 
early Spanish conquerors were soldiers, and the long wars with 
the Moors, and the presence of the Jews, had bred into the Span- 
ish character strong religious fanaticism. The Spanish Inquisi- 
tion had accustomed him to the public burnings of heretics, 
and when he came in contact with the Indians of America he 
treated them as he had seen so-called heretics in Spain treated. 
Columbus, finding Indians on the island, thought they would 
make good servants. On his return to Spain, however, he was 
instructed by the monarchs to deal kindly with the natives. 
In spite of this admonition Columbus captured six hundred 
Indians and sent them to Spain as slaves. This action was 
quickly repudiated by the queen especially, who promptly 
ordered them sent back. Later Columbus began a policy of 
levying tribute upon the natives, and those who could not 

pay were compelled to work. Under the suc- 
EucoSeSflysteS^ ccssors of Columbus the enslavement of the 

Indians, under the system of encomienda, 
was carried much farther, and was soon extended to all the 

118 



SOCIETY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 119 

islands. From the islands it was brought to the mainland. 
The encomienda has been defined as "a right, conceded by- 
royal bounty to well-deserving persons in the Indies, to receive 
and enjoy for themselves the tributes of the Indians who should 
be assigned to them, with the charge of providing for the good 
of those Indians in spiritual and temporal matters, and of in- 
habiting and defending the provinces where these encomiendas 
should be granted to them." The system of encomienda was 
not slavery, smce individual Indians might not be bought and 
sold, but the system corresponded more nearly to mediaeval 
serfdom. 

The Spanish monarchs were kindly disposed toward the In- 
dians, and especially was this true of Isabella. She gave definite 
instruction to Ovando not to enslave the Indians. After the 
death of the good queen, Ferdinand relaxed more and more 
in his opposition to enslavement of the Indians, and when 
pressed by suitors for favors he gave them Indians. Some of 
the recipients of these gifts came to America, while others 
became absentee proprietors, and farmed out their Indians. 
In 1512 Ferdinand issued an ordinance forbidding anyone in 
the Indies holding more than three hundred Indians. This 
ordinance also laid down certain regulations in respect to their 
treatment. The settlers were to use gentle means in getting 
Treatment of the ^^^ natives to come willingly; large huts 

Indians During Were to be provided for every fifty Indians; 

the Ear y eno ^^^ ^ Certain amoimt of land for the growing 

of food should be set apart for each fifty; when working in 
mines the Indians were required to work five months at a 
time, when they were to enjoy a period of rest of forty days, 
during which time they might cultivate land on their own/ 
account. In 1523 the crown forbade the granting of reparti- 
mientos in Mexico, though this order was later mthdrawn. 
By 1532 the system was extended to Peru by Pizarro. In 1536 
a law was promulgated granting Indians in encomienda for 
two lives. In the meanwhile Las Casas had been at work in 
the Indian's behalf. He had labored successfully in behalf of 
the conversion of the Indians, and had preached incessantly 
in favor of their liberation. In his celebrated book, The De- 



120 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

struction of the Indies, he had argued powerfully for liberation. 
Finally, his long labors were successful in securing the adop- 
tion of what were known as the "New Laws." These laws pro- 
vided that after the death of the conquerors the repartimientos 
of Indians, given to them in encomienda, were not to pass to 
their heirs, but were to go to the king. Personal service of 
Indians was to be entirely abolished, although the encomien- 
dros was to retain the right to a moderate tribute. 

The net result of these "New Laws" was that they failed of 
execution, and the settlers continued to hold their Indians. 
The attempted execution of the New Laws in Peru caused a 
rebellion of the settlers, while in Mexico the inhabitants on 
learning of them resolved to clothe themselves in mourning. 
When the official sent to carry out the laws arrived he was 
immediately met with petitions and remonstrances against 
their publication. In spite of these remonstrances the laws 
were published in March, 1544, and a revolt was threatened. 
Rebellion, however, was allayed by the bishop 
'SeStwL^^' °* calling a miSfeting at the cathedral, the clergy 
as a whole not being in favor of the laws, as 
they themselves held encomiendras. Finally, the next year a 
royal decree was issued revoking the laws. The system of 
encomienda continued until 1700, when it was abolished, 
though its effects are plainly visible tto the present day. What- 
ever may be said of the cruelties practiced by the Spanish 
colonists upon the Indians, this much must be said for the 
Spanish government: it did all in its power to protect the 
Indians, and "the Indian legislation of the Spanish kings is an 
impressive monument of benevolent intentions which need not 
fear comparison with the contemporary legislation of any 
European country affecting the status of the working classes" 
(Bourne, p. 256). 

Just before the middle of the eighteenth century two Span- 
iards, George Juan and Antonio Ulloa, visited South America, 
and resided for some years in Peru and Ecuador. On the king's 
command they wrote an account of their observations as to the 
treatment of the Indians. The report, known as Noticias 
Secretas de America, is a damning arraignment of the Spanish 



SOCIETY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 121 

colonial officials and of the colonists. The report shows that the 

The Secret Report of COrregidorS, who WCie charged with the col- 
George Juan and lection of the Indian tribute, greatly abused 

°'"° °* their office, for their own enrichment. Cer- 

tain classes of Indians were legally exempt from paying 
tribute, but the corregidor paid no heed to these exemptions, 
and collected from every Indian, and kept all he could collect 
over and above what was required by law. The corregidor 
exercised almost absolute power in his district and the Indians 
had no redress. Another means of exploitation employed by 
this official was through his sale of goods to the natives. This 
was originally intended as a benefit, but as used by the cor- 
regidors was an unmitigated curse. Instead of consulting the 
Exploitation of the Indian's needs, he bought those articles which 
Natives by the he could obtain cheaply and on credit, and 

Corregidor ^^^^ proceeded to distribute them among the 

Indians according to their ability to pay. For instance, one 
corregidor bought a supply of spectacles, and required that 
every Indian wear them when he' went to mass; silk stockings 
were distributed among barefooted Indians; meat of dead 
animals, unfit to eat, was parceled out among the natives, 
for which they were charged exorbitant prices. 

On the estates the Indians worked three hundred days in 

the year, and received $18; of this sum $8 was taken for tribute 

money. In the cotton factories the native workers were locked 

_ in at the beginning of the day, and were re- 

Indian Wages . 

quired to do a certam amount of work; if 
not completed at the close of the day, they were cruelly flogged. 
The priests seemed to work hand in hand with the corregidor 
and others to despoil the Indians. The poor natives were 
charged for every service performed by the church. One curate 
in the province of Quito reported that "he collected every year 

more than 200 sheep, 5,000 hens and chickens, 

The^hurchandthe ^qqq ^^^^^ pigS, 50,000 eggS," and this 

curacy, we are reminded, was not one of the 
most lucrative. The monks who held curacies carried oppres- 
sion to its utmost bounds. The monk generally had an Indian 
concubine, under whose charge were all the women and chil- 



122 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

dren of the parish, whom she exploited by converting all the 
village into a manufactory for her profit. Altogether the Ulloa 
report gives an exceedingly dark picture of conditions prevail- 
ing among the Indians, which we are compelled to believe 
because of the official standing and loyalty to the church of 
the men who made it. 

The Spaniards, because of their contact with the Moham- 
medan life in Spain, had become very tolerant of irregular 
relations of the sexes. Plural marriages were recognized by 
the laws, and among the clergy cehbacy was more an ideal 
than a fact. Concubinage was common among both priests 
and monks, while among the laity the marriage bond was 
lightly borne both by husbands and wives. Life in America 
did not improve the Spaniard's morals, but tended, rather, to 
accentuate the condition prevalent in Spain. The early Span- 
ish conquerors came to America without their women, and 
, they seem to have possessed no moral or 

Intermamage of •' ^ ^^ ^ • ^ ^ -, 

Natives with racial feeling agamst mmglmg their blood 

Spaniards ^^j^ ^^^^^ ^f ^j^g natives. When Ovando 

came to Hispaniola he found practically aU the Spaniards had 
taken Indian women as concubines. The Franciscan monks 
protested against this condition, and the governor ordered that 
the Spaniards should either marry these women or separate 
from them. Ferdinand made an attempt to send out white 
women to be the wives of the settlers, but this expedient 
proved inadequate, and two years later a royal ordinance was 
issued legalizing marriage between the natives and the Span- 
iards. Many of the conquistadores had wives in Spain, and 
Governor Ovando attempted to send those having wives back 
to Spain, but later married men were not allowed to come out 
to the Indies without their wives. 

As we have already seen, Irala, while governor of Asuncion, 
allowed the practice of polygamy, Irala himself espousing the 
seven daughters of the principal chief. On his death he asked, 
in his will, that the children by these wives be considered as 
Spaniards. White women were extremely rare in Chile, and 
we are told that every Spanish trooper was attended by from 
four to six native women. The long wars with the warlike 



SOCIETY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 123 

Araucanians had killed off the native men, and the ratio of 
soldiers to native women in the frontier gar- 

Examples of Race • j. r t • i i • 

Mixture Tisons was One to tour. In a smgle week m 

1580 sixty illegitimate children were born in a 
post where there were a hundred and sixty soldiers. Married 
men kept concubines in great numbers, and Aguirre, one of 
the conquistadores, left on his death fifty illegitimate sons, to 
say nothing of daughters. In 1776 it was estimated that in 
Santiago women were ten times as numerous as men, while 
Humboldt, in 1803, estimates that only one tenth of the 
European-bom Spaniards in Mexico were women. Out of 
such free mixing of the races a great variety of types naturally 
came. 

At the top of the social scale stood the European-bom Span- 
iard, or the chapeton. This class contained the great land- 
holders and the important officers in church and state. After 
the chapeton came the Creole, or the American-born Spaniard. 
The Creole, like the chapeton, was a pure white, many of them 
being the descendants of the conquerors, and in many cases 
they also held large estates. They were deprived of the offices 
in both church and state, which was the cause of a growing 
friction between the two white classes. Ranking third was 
the mestizo, the race resulting from the mingling of the blood 
of the natives with that of the Spaniards. In some instances 
they were almost on a level with the Creole, and held consid- 
erable property, but more often they were artisans. Distinctly 

. „, lower than the mestizo was the mulatto, of 

Sodal Classes , . _ 

white and Negro parentage. He performed 
the coarser labor, though at the time of the revolutions some 
of this class had attained honorable positions. We have al- 
ready treated the Indian at some length, his social status being 
that of an enforced laborer. At the foot of the social ladder 
were the Negroes, and the mixture of the Negro and the In- 
dian, the zambo. At first Negroes had been brought over as 
slaves, but they were never numerous, outside the islands, and 
the northern part of South America, and in Brazil. In the 
other parts of the country they were to be found about the 
ports. Many succeeded in gaining their freedom, and when 



124 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

free they often rose above the Indians in the social scale. The 
Indians were morose and sullen. A spirit of jealousy prevailed 
among the various social classes. This social discontent, how- 
ever, was looked upon with favor by the government, consid- 
ering it an element of safety, and therefore no effort was made 
to allay it. 

The Church as an Element in Latin American Society 

By far the most important social organization in Latin 
America was the church. The religious motive had always 
been a dominant one among the Spanish conquistadores and 
the work of converting the Indians to Christianity was not 
The Church an ^^^^ Undertaken by the church, but this 

Important Social worthy work was Seconded by civil power. 

Institution rpj^^ church in the Spanish dependencies was 

always dependent upon the Spanish crown. "No church, 
monastery, or hospital could be erected except in accordance 
with the king's ordinances," while a goodly proportion of the 
revenues of the church found its way into the royal treasury. 

The three orders, Franciscan, Augustinian, and Dominican, 
were active in the early years of colonization and the powerful 
Jesuit Society after the middle of the sixteenth century. Mem- 
bers of the order became prominent in the work of propagating 
Christianity in the New World. There were 
Carried on by the three distinct types of work carried on by 
Church in Latin ^]jg church in America. First was the work 

"^ * in the Spanish towns, in charge of a cura or 

priest, which was a work similar to the work of a parish priest 
in Spain; second, the work in the Indian villages, which was in 
charge of two or more friars or of a cura; third, the work car- 
ried on among the wild Indians by the missionaries. The mis- 
sionaries gathered the Indians into villages, where they were 
taught the elements of civilization and Christianity. When 
the work of the missionary was completed he moved on and 
the village became a "pueblo de Indios," and a doctrinal curate 
was placed in charge. 

Although the church in America was directly under the con- 
trol of the Spanish crown, exercised through the Council of 



SOCIETY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 125 

the Indies, yet this control did not hinder it from becoming 
extremely wealthy. There is evidence, however, that the king 
of Spain did not favor the accumulation of property in the 
hands of the church. Toward the close of the eighteenth cen- 
tury a large proportion of the property in the city of Lima was 

in the hands of the church, including four 
the^coionier"^ Dominican monasteries, three Franciscan, 

three Augustinian, with eleven others of 
various orders. Besides there were fourteen convents for nuns; 
five houses for pious women, in addition to hospitals and other 
institutions devoted to charitable or religious purposes. There 
was a numerous priesthood, with bishops and archbishops. In 
Mexico about 1800 there were some 14,000 clergy, eight bish- 
ops, and one archbishop, with a total value of property 
amounting to some $75,000,000. In South America there were 
some 20 bishoprics. When the Jesuits were expelled from 
Spanish America in 1767 there were in Mexico 23 Jesuit col- 
leges, 8 convents, 5 residences, 103 missions, with 122,000 
neophytes. 

The Inquisition was introduced into the colonies in the later 
sixteenth century. The Indians, however, were never brought 
under its jurisdiction. The actual number condemned and 
executed by this tribunal in the colonies was comparatively 

few: not more than a hundred in Peru and 

The Inquisibon ■» /r • • 

Mexico m two hundred and seventy-six years. 
In Peru there were twenty-nine "autos da fe," or burnings. 
The first one took place in 1581 and the last in 1776. The 
chief work of the Inquisition in America was the condemning 
of books. The number of books expurgated or prohibited in- 
cluded the works of five thousand four hundred and twenty 
authors, which included the names of the greatest thinkers of 
the eighteenth century. 

Education 

The work of education was likewise in the hands of the 
church, and was based on dogma and discipline. It was con- 
ducted entirely for the interests of a small class; no such thing 
as popular education was thinkable. The great mass of the 



126 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

population received no training except such as was given m 

the pubUc exercises of the church. Indians and half-breeds in 

some instances received rudimentary teaching at the mission 

schools. The Franciscans built schools be- 

Primaiy Education • i . i • i i i t t 

Side their churches, where Indians were 
taught the three "R's." A great school for Indian boys was 
established in Mexico, where a thousand could be accommo- 
dated. Jesuits established a number of schools of secondary 
grade. Some of the wealthier families sent their children to 
Spain for their education, though this practice was far from 
being universal. 

Twelve universities were founded in Latin America during 
the colonial period, eight of them before the creation of Har- 
vard. In 1551 the Universities of Mexico and Saint Mark in 
Lima were founded by Charles V, while in 1614 the Jesuits 
founded a university at Cordoba. In the early eighteenth 

century the University of Saint Mark had 

nearly two thousand students and some hun- 
dred and eight instructors. Instruction was offered in theol- 
ogy, civil and canon law, medicine, and the arts. As a whole 
the number of schools and colleges founded by the Spaniards 
in their colonies, and the range of studies pursued, were su- 
perior to anything in Enghsh North America during the same 
period. 

The attainment of scholarship in the Spanish colonies was 
also considerable. Much good work was done in medicine 

and surgery. The native languages were re- 
sS?sWp°°^^^ duced to written forms and dictionaries and 

grammars prepared. The bulk of the books 
published by colonial authors were upon religious subjects, 
written by ecclesiastics. The colonial period was rich in his- 
torical productions, among them being Duran's Historia de 
las Indias de Nueva Espana and Acosta's Natural and Civil 
History of the Indies; and Bernal Diaz, History of the Con- 
quest of New Spain. 

A type of literature which became quite common during the co- 
lonial period was the heroic poem. The first and most famous 
of these is ''La Araucana," written by Ztiniga y Ercilla, based 



SOCIETY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 127 

upon his personal experiences in Chile. This poem, though 
written and published in Spain in 1569-1572, served as the 
model of many others of hke nature. The deeds of Cortes were 

described in a long poem by Antonio de 
LUerature** *"" Saavedra, while the conquest of Peru served 

as the theme of other long poems. The 
longest poem in any language was one describing the whole 
of Spanish endeavors, by Juan de Castellanos. In the seven- 
teenth century Mexico produced a real poetical genius in the 
person of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, a woman whose collected 
literary works fill three volumes. The eighteenth century was 
sterile as far as the production of literature was concerned, but 
taken as a whole the colonial period in Latin America was 
much more fruitful, in a literary sense, than was the colonial 
period of the English colonies. 

The first news sheet which appeared in the Spanish colonies 
was in 1594 at Lima, while in 1620 occasional sheets began to 
be issued in Mexico. A real newspaper, however, did not 
„ appear in the Spanish colonies until 1722, 

Newspapers t i i • i i . ^ 

when a little sheet, miserably printed, on 
poor paper, began to appear in Mexico. By 1810 five prov- 
inces, besides Mexico and Peru, had newspapers. There was 
no newspaper in Chile until 1812, though Bogota boasted of a 
paper as early as 1791. 

Brazil lagged considerably behind the Spanish colonies both 
in education, literature, and scholarship. There' were some 
schools conducted by the monks in the towns, and a few Jesuit 
"colleges," though there were no universities and no news- 
papers until 1808. 

Population 

At the close of the eighteenth century the population of 
Latin America was nearly 19,000,000. Mexico contained some- 
thing near 6,000,000; New Granada, 1,500,000; Venezuela, 800,- 
000; Chile, 800,000; La Plata, 1,000,000; Peru, perhaps 3,000,- 
000 to 5,000,000; and Brazil perhaps 3,000,000 to 5,000,000. 
About half the population of La Plata were Indians, while in 
Mexico there were nearly 3,000,000 Indians, 2,000,000 half- 
breeds, 364,742 European-bom whites, and 582,000 Creoles. 



128 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The four largest towns in Spanish America at the end of the 
eighteenth century were Mexico City, with some 137,000 peo- 
ple; Quito, with 70,000; Buenos Ayres, with 60,000; and Lima, 
with 54,000. 

READING REFERENCES 

Suggestive treatment of several phases of South American society 
during the colonial period may be found in South America on the Eve of 
Emancipation, by Bernard Moses, Chapters IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII. 
In a later work by the same author, Spanish Dependencies in South Amer- 
ica (2 Vols.), there are also a number of chapters treating of the church, 
education, and social characteristics of colonial Latin America. A recent 
paper by Bernard Moses, on "The Social Revolution of the Eighteenth 
Century in South America," may be found in American Historical Asso- 
ciation Reports, 1915, pp. 163-170. 

Spain in America, by E. G. Bourne, Chapters XVII and XX also 
treat briefly of social conditions in the Spanish colonies. 

Latin America, by W. R. Shepherd, Chapters III, V, and VI deal with 
"Social Organization," "The Church," and "Intellectual and Artistic 
Status," respectively. 

The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies, by H. C. Lea (The Mac- 
miUan Company, 1908), is the fullest treatment of the Inquisition in the 
colonies. 



CHAPTER XI 

TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF SPANISH RULE IN 
- AMERICA 

In this chapter it is intended to summarize the chief events 
in the political history of Spanish rule in America, from the 
period of colonization to the end of the eighteenth century. 
This story covers more than two hundred years, and yet it is 
possible to treat it in one chapter, because the Spanish govern- 
mental system, once established, remained in operation, with 
little change, to the end of the Spanish colonial empire. One 
viceroy succeeded another, with little or no interruption in the 
orderly affairs of government. We have already discussed the 
administrative system established by Spain in her colonies, 
and it only remains for us, in this chapter, to pass in rapid 
review the chief political events in the conduct of that well- 
organized system. 

New Spain 
During the colonial period, from 1535 to 1822, there were 
sixty-four viceroys who ruled in Mexico. Of these sixty-four 
chief officials a few were ecclesiastics, two held office for two 
terms, while only two or three were natives of Mexico. As a 
whole Mexico was well governed during all 
New^S^^*^°* the three hundred years of Spain's colonial 
rule. Even during the period when the home 
government was becoming weaker and weaker the government 
of Mexico was becoming more firmly established. The viceroy 
of New Spain ruled over a vast territory, including what are 
now the Central American states, and the territory stretching 
northward, including Texas, and eventually as far as Van- 
couver Island. 

The first of the Mexican viceroys was Antonio de Men- 
doza, who arrived in America in the fall of 1535. He had been 
appointed by Charles V, and was a man of high character and 

129 



130 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

a keen sense of justice. During his administration, which lasted 
fifteen years, he encouraged education and the founding of 
schools, and as a whole the country prospered. During his 
administration the attempt was made to sup- 
press the encomienda system, which led to 
considerable disturbance. Several new towns were founded 
and several distant tribes of Indians were pacified. In 1550 
Mendoza left Mexico for a similar post in Peru, and he was 
succeeded by Luis de Velasco. Under this administration there 
was a threatened uprising to make Cortes, a son of the Con- 
queror, king of New Spain. This insurrection, however, was 
soon suppressed with great severity. 

Toward the close of the sixteenth century the problem of 
protecting the treasure fleets from the European enemies of 
Spain became pressing. In 1568 the Enghsh captain John 
Hawkins had captm-ed San Juan de UUoa, and four years later 
Drake plundered along the coast of the Mexican gulf, and in 
1578 made his most famous voyage around South America 
and up the Pacific Coast, plundering and burning as he went. 
The English. Dutch. ^^ 1^86 he bumed Saint Augustme, Florida 
and French The Dutch also wcrc active in the work of 

Buccaneers plundering. They hovered off the Gulf 

coast with their fleets, damaging towns and taking treasure 
ships. The French likewise took a hand at plundering, and it 
became necessary to send warships to convoy the treasure 
fleets of Spain. In 1635 the English captured the island of 
Jamaica and thereafter the danger to Spanish convoys was 
much increased. During all of the seventeenth century the 
ports of Yucatan and Central America were frequently 
raided. In 1683 even Vera Cruz was captured and was held 
for ten days. The treaty of Utrecht (1713), which gave the 
Enghsh the right of senduig a ship of five hundred tons burden 
to trade with Spanish colonies, greatly facihtated smuggling. 

The chief event of the eighteenth century, in the history of 
New Spain, was the expulsion of the Jesuits. This was ac- 
complished by an order issued by King Charles III, expellmg 
them from all of his dominions. The Jesuits had come to 
Mexico in 1572, and duruag the two hundred years of their 



TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 131 

labor in America had done much to civilize the natives and 
educate the whites. The members of the 
j^iSts °° °* ** order were arrested en masse on the night of 

June 26, 1767, their goods sequestrated, and 
they themselves deported to Habana, from whence they were 
taken to Cadiz. The work which they had carried on was 
in a large measure taken over by the Franciscans and Do- 
minicans, who pushed on into upper California. They founded 
many towris, such as San Carlos, San Antonio, San Gabriel, 
in which the mission stations were made the centers of in- 
terest. The expulsion of the Jesuits was much resented by 
the Creoles and was an added cause for their discontent. 

Toward the close of the eighteenth century the minor offi- 
cials, especially the corregidores, and the alcaldes, had become 
very corrupt, and an attempt was made to devise reforms. 
Reforms in New ^^ ^'^^^^ ^ Order to bring about better gov- 

spain in the emmeut, the country was divided into in- 

Eighteenth Century tendencies, twelve in number, whose officials 
were made directly subject to the viceroy. Among the best 
of the later viceroys was Revillagigedo (1789-1794), a progres- 
sive ruler, who did much to improve the administration and 
increase commerce. In this administration the first census of 
New Spain was taken. 

The Vicekoyalty of Peru 

After the period of turbulence which marked the downfall of 
the last of the Pizarros m Peru, Antonio de Mendoza, who had 
already served a successful term as viceroy at Mexico, became 
viceroy at Lima. He arrived in Peru in 1551, but died the 
next year. Peru was filled with adventurers, and rebellion in 
the early years was never far away. Bernard Moses estimates 
that at the close of the civil wars in Peru there were eight 
thousand Spaniards, of whom four hundred and eighty-nine 
held grants of land and Indians, and about 
p^^*""*^*° one thousand others occupied official posi- 
tions or occupied estates; but the whole 
Spanish population desired to live without labor (Bernard 
Moses, Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, 134). It 



132 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

was with difficulty that the king of Spain succeeded in getting 
anyone to accept the post of viceroy after the death of An- 
tonio Mendoza, but finally succeeded in inducing Hurtado de 
Mendoza to accept the difficult post. Hurtado ruled with an 
iron hand for six years. The disturbing elements in the colony 
were either sent out of the country or executed. He also did 
much toward pacifying the Indians, seeing that they had good 
priests appointed in their villages, and promoted the founda- 
tion of schools. 

Perhaps the most conspicuous of the early viceroys of Peru 
was Don Francisco de Toledo, who was the fifth to hold 
that office, entering Peru in 1569 and ruling with success for 
thirteen years. He gave a minute inspection to every prov- 
ince within the country, after which he established the system 
of local government which prevailed in Peru for two hundred 
years. The provisions relating to local government are con- 
The Viceroy, tained in the Libro de Tasas. According to 

Francisco de Toledo, these regulations, the territory was divided 
1569-1581 j^^Q districts called corregimientos, over 

which was placed the corregidor; municipal government was 
definitely established, fixing the duties of the several officers, 
and also regulating trade. The code also dealt with the In- 
dians. It determined the amount of tribute to be paid by 
them, and the amount of service they were to render. In 
addition to the tribute, according to these regulations, the 
Indians were also to render personal service in the mines, 
manufactories, and on the farms, which was known as the 
mita. A priest was to be placed in each village, who was to 
teach the Indians the doctrines of Christianity and all traces 
of the old religion were to be destroyed. Among the noted 
accomplishments by this famous viceroy was the murder, en- 
tirely unprovoked, of the last of the Incas. This occurred in 
1571, when the young Inca prince, Tupac Amaru, was seized 
and beheaded in the square at Cuzco. 

By the beginning of the seventeenth century the political 
affairs of Peru had fallen into a settled order, and viceroys 
followed one another without disturbance. From 1543, when 
the first of the Peruvian rulers took up his duties, to 1801, 



TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 133 

thirty-five viceroys ruled in Peru. During the early period 
, ^ „. most of the viceroys had belonged to the 

Later Viceroys ^ r^i • c i7 • 

great houses of Spam, but followmg the 
reign of Philip II to the early years of the eighteenth century, 
a different class were sent out. The later viceroys, especially 
after the Bourbon kings came to the Spanish throne, were 
more practical men, such as Don Manuel Amat and Don 
Ambrosio O'Higgins, the latter having been a successful 
governor-general of Chile. The average term of office for the 
viceroys of Peru was seven and a half years. 

Until the estabUshment of the viceroyalties of New Granada 
and Buenos Ayres, the jurisdiction of the Peruvian viceroy ex- 
tended over all the Spanish possessions in South America. The 
captain-generals of Venezuela and of Chile were subject to the 
authority of the viceroy at Lima, but for every practical purpose 
these far-distant provinces were independent of his authority. 

The outstanding event in Peru in the latter eighteenth cen- 
tury was the great Indian revolt under the leadership of Tupac 
Amaru, the descendant of the Inca of that name, whom Fran- 
cisco de Toledo had put to death over two hundred years 
before in the square of the ancient Inca capital. Tupac Amaru 
was a well-educated Indian, and had been recognized by the 
Spanish authorities as the descendant of the Incas. He was 
cacique of a district near Cuzco, and did everything in his 
power to ameliorate the deplorable condition of his people. 
For years he exerted himself to redress the 

Tupac Amaru 

wrongs of the Indians, talking to priests and 
officials in their behalf, but it was all to no avail. The evils 
went on, especially those practiced by the corregidores, the 
nature of which we have already described. One of the most 
merciless of these corregidores was the one at Tinta, and Tupac 
Amaru determined to begin his revolt by punishing this cor- 
regidor. This was successfully accomplished, and the corregi- 
dor of Tinta was arrested and executed in November, 1780. 
This act was the signal for the gathering of the Indians to 
Tupac's banner, and they arose as one man around him. Tupac 
then advanced toward Cuzco, where in the early part of 1781 
an indecisive battle was fought. 



134 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The whole of central Peru was now in revolt, and the Spanish 
officials began to be greatly alarmed, and every effort was made 
to gather troops at Lima. The viceroy of Peru sent a miUtary 
force, as did also the viceroy at Buenos Ayres, for the Indians 
about La Paz were also in revolt. Finally, a force of fifteen 
thousand men, made up of Spanish regulars, mulatto troops, 
and Indians, was gathered at Cuzco to meet the revolting Inca. 
The Overthrow and ^^ ^'^^ juncture Tupac Amaru wrote to 
Capture of Tupac Areche, the official sent from Lima, propos- 

ing to arbitrate, but the answer of this 
official was a brutal refusal to enter into negotiations, and 
promising the most horrible vengeance upon the Inca. There 
was nothing left now for Tupac but to fight to the bitter end. 
In March the Inca took up his position near the village of 
Checacape, where a battle was fought, which proved disas- 
trous to the Inca's forces. Tupac Amaru fled with his famUy, 
hoping to rally his army. He was betrayed, however, by one 
of his officers and delivered into the hands of the Spaniards, 
who took him to Cuzco to await his awful fate. The Spanish 
general hung sixty-seven Indians at Tinta, stuck their heads 
on poles, and placed them beside the roadway as a warning 
to the revolting Indians. 

The Spanish officials now proceeded to carry out the cruel 
sentence upon the Inca and his family. On May 15, 1781, the 
sentence was published. The Inca was to have his tongue cut 
out; then was to be torn to pieces by horses attached to his 
limbs and driven in different directions; then his body was to 
be burnt, and his head and limbs stuck upon poles, to be set 
up in different towns which had been loyal to his cause. This 
horrible sentence was hterally carried out on 
Tupac AnLu"** May 18, while the family of the Inca was 

compelled to witness the terrible scene. This 
event, however, did not stop the revolt, for fighting continued 
for many months under the command of Diego Tupac Amaru, 
the Inca's cousin. The town of Sorata was besieged by the 
Indians, and finally taken by an ingenious plan of the Indian 
commander, who turned the waters of a mountain stream 
against the earthworks protecting the town. The inhabitants 



TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 135 

of Sorata were massacred, the clergy alone being allowed to 
escape. La Paz was besieged for one hundred and nine days 
by 40,000 Indians, but was finally relieved by General Flores, 
with troops from Buenos Ayres, only to be besieged again from 
August to October, Diego Tupac Amaru finally, on promise 
of pardon by the Spanish oflficials, disbanded his forces and 
returned to his home. But no sooner was this done than the 
perfidious officials broke their promises, and Diego and all his 
relatives were put to death, and an effort was made to ex- 
terminate every vestige of the Inca lineage. Altogether this 
revolt cost the lives of eighty thousand victims. 

But the revolt and the death of the Inca was not in vain. j^ 

The viceroy of Peru was called upon for a report as to the ^^ 
causes of the revolt, and he replied by laying the blame upon 111— '"^ 
the misery caused by the mita, and the exactions of the priests, ' 
and proposed certain remedies. There followed now a series 
of excellent viceroys, who exerted all their influence and power 
toward relieving the situation. Under the viceroyalty of Don 
Theodoro de Croix (1784-1790) the office of corregidor was 
abolished, and Peru was divided into seven large provinces 
called intendencias, over each of which was placed an in- 

tendent, directly subject to the viceroy. The 
Gov°emm^t of Peru intcndancies were in turn divided into parti- 

das, each of which was under ia subdelegate, 
subject to the intendent. Following De Croix came Admiral de 
Taboada, who has been called the best and most enlightened 
of the viceroys. He was a lover of letters and a promoter of 
enlightened thought. Under his patronage letters and learn- 
ing flourished at Lima. Taboada was followed by a very 
remarkable man, Ambrose O'Higgins. He was an Irishman, 
who as a boy had come out to Peru, and through sheer 
talent and tact succeeded in becoming captain-general of 
Chile (1788-1796) and later viceroy of Peru (1796-1800). 
The next viceroy, Aviles (1800-1806), was a man of very 
different character, who promoted no useful measure, while 
under his successor, Fernando Abascal, the revolutionary move- 
ment began which was finally to overthrow the colonial power 
of Spain. 



136 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Chile 
From the beginning Chile was largely independent of Peru, 
though it remained to the end of the colonial period a part of 
the viceroyalty. For the most part, the country was ruled by a 
governor appointed by the Spanish crown, though in 1567 the 
royal audiencia was established, with Don Melchor de Bravo 
as president, civil governor, and military commander. This 
system of government, however, lasted only to 1575, when a 
special commissioner was appointed to reorganize the govern- 
ment imder a captain general, and this system remained in 
operation to the close of the period. In the eighteenth century 
the captain-general of Chile took on increased 

The Govenunent of •„ ■ <• .-t , r • j • 

Chile importance, from the custom of appomtmg 

him, at the close of his term of office, to a 
more important post, often to that of the viceroy of Peru. The 
captaincy-general for the purpose of administration was di- 
vided into thirteen provinces, "which were governed by officers 
known at different times as corregidores, prefects, and sub- 
delegates. These officials exercised both civil and military 
functions, and served without other compensation than the 
fees of their office." It was always necessary to maintain a 
large military force in Chile, due to the warlike Indians. To- 
ward the close of the eighteenth century nearly two thousand 
regular troops were maintained, besides the militia. The ex- 
pense of maintaining this military force was largely met from 
the funds of the viceroyalty at Lima. 

New Granada 
Until 1716 the territory included in the present states of 
Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador was subject to the viceroy 
at Peru, but in that year the viceroyalty of New Granada was 
created, with the capital at Bogota. Previous to this the terri- 
tory, now included in the present Republic of Colombia, was 
ruled by a long series of governors, who came and went without 
producing any change in the government. The first viceroy of 
New Granada was Don Sebastian de Eslaba, and his adminis- 
tration is marked by the repelling of an attack of the English 
upon Porto Bello. Besides this notable achievement the rule of 




POLITICAL 
DIVISIONS 

Vice-Royalties 

Captaincies ^ 

General tn 

Audiencias 



■J 



TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 137 

Eslaba is also noted for the advancement made in internal im- 
provements of the country, such as the con- 
New Graclda " struction of roads, building of bridges, and the 
development of manufacturing. During the 
closing years of the eighteenth centm-y there was much internal 
disturbance, due to certain financial reforms instituted by the 
government, and there were even threats to throw off allegiance 
to the king of Spain. This danger, however, was allayed 
through the intervention of Archbishop Gorgora, who in rec- 
ognition of this service was appointed viceroy. His adminis- 
tration, noted for his encouragement of science, and other wise 
measures, left the coimtry in a condition of peace and pros- 
perity. 

Venezuela 

In the interests of better administration Venezuela was set 
apart under a captain-general in 1777. For every practical 
purpose the governor-general was independent of the viceroy 
at Bogota. He was the head of the military, president of the 
audiencia, as well as the chief executive officer. He received a 
salary of $9,000 a year, besides the fees which came to him as 
judge. At the head of the financial administration of the 
captaincy-general was the intendent, who was given a large 
measure of independence in the conduct of his important 
office. 

Rio de La Plata 

From the foundation of Spanish colonies upon the Rio de La 
Plata until 1776 the whole region was included in the vice- 
royalty of Peru. In 1614 the territory had been divided into 
two provinces, with Buenos Ayres the capital of one, and 
Asuncion the capital of the other. There were no mines, and 
no direct trade with Spain in Rio de La Plata, so there were few 
attractions, and population increased but slowly. Before the 
separation of the territory into two provinces Buenos Ayres 
had outgrown Asuncion, and if there had been no restrictions 
upon direct trade with Spain the city at the mouth of the great 
river would have grown much more rapidly; but as it was, 



138 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Buenos Ajnres had to look to Lima for her wares. The expense 
of transporting goods across the continent 
colteab^rxrade^ stimulated the Portuguese to carry on con- 
traband trade, for, bringing their goods di- 
rectly from Europe they could smuggle them across the river 
into the Spanish colonies at a small part of the price necessary 
if the goods were brought by way of Lima. So successful was 
this trade that even Lima merchants began the practice of 
coming to Buenos Ayres to make their purchases, rather than 
go to the Fair at Porto Bello. To further this trade the Portu- 
guese began to push southward, along the Brazilian coast, and 
established a fort, Colonia, across the Rio de La Plata from 
Buenos Ayres. The founding of this post was resented by the 
population of the Spanish province, and an expedition was 
made against it, which succeeded in capturing the place. This, 
however, did not settle the matter, and for many years it was 
the cause of dispute between not only the Spanish and Portu- 
guese in America but also between the home governments. 

The immense distance from Lima and the increasing im- 
portance of Buenos Ayres led the Spanish colonial authorities 
to raise the latter city to the dignity of a viceroyalty (1776). 
The territory of the new viceroyalty included 
? v'iceroX' ^^^^ besides the old provinces of Buenos Ayres 
and Paraguay, the presidency of Charcas 
(modem Bolivia), and the province of Cuyo, which had for- 
merly been a part of Chile. From 1776 to 1810 eleven viceroys 
ruled at Buenos Ayres, the first one being Antonio de Ceballos 
and the last Hidalgo de Cisneros. 

READING REFERENCES 

The best general narrative of the History of Colonial South America is 
Spanish and Porttiguese South America (1884), by R. G. Watson. 

Brief accounts, more serviceable for class use, are found in Winsor, 
Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. VIII, Chapters IV and V. 
Chapter IV, on "Spanish North America," is by Justin Winsor, while 
Chapter V, on "Colonial History of South America," is by C. R. Mark- 
ham. 

Spanish Dependencies in South America (2 Vols., 1914), by Bernard 
Moses, treats of the period, but is not a general account, but, ratfeer, a 



TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 139 

series of separate studies. The two earlier books by the same author, 
The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, and SoiUh America on the 
Eve of Emancipation, contain chapters which will be found valuable. 

A good popular account of the colonial period for South America will 
also be found in South American Republics, by Thomas C. Dawson (1906, 
2 Vols.). 

Two books relating to the founding of the Spanish Empire in North 
America are The Founding of Spanish California; The Northwest Expan- 
sion of New Spain, 1687-178S, by Charles Edward Chapman (Macmillan, 
1916), and The Spanish Settlements in the United States, by Woodbury 
Lowery, Vol. I, 1513-1561; Vol. II, 1562-1574 (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 
1911). 



CHAPTER XII 

THE CAUSES OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN WARS 
FOR INDEPENDENCE 

The causes of the South American wars for independence 
were far different from those which resulted in the rebeUion of 
England's thirteen American colonies. As we survey the gov- 
ernment of colonial Latin America in the light of twentieth- 
century democracy, we wonder why the Spanish colonists, 
badly governed and heavily taxed for the benefit of the mother 
country as they were, and in every way exploited, did not rebel 
long before they did. Yet still more strange to the North 
American is the fact that the immediate causes of the revolu- 
tions in South America did not grow out of the evil and despotic 
government which was imposed upon them. Mr. Bryce says it 
was Napoleon who brought about South American independ- 
ence. The general causes of dissaffection, however, did grow 
out of conditions which had long existed, and with which we 
are already familiar. 

General Causes of Disaffection 
The Spanish colonist was supposed to enjoy the same con- 
stitutional rights as a citizen of Spain, but in many instances 
this was far from the fact. The government, at best, was 
extremely despotic, but when a despotic government is carried 
on by inefficient officials the despotism becomes unbearable, 
and this was the case in the Spanish colonies. The Inquisition 
_ „ . which was established in the colonies was an 

The Nature of 

Spanish Colonial institution hated by everyone. Its income 

Government a Cause depended upon the number of confiscations 
made, and very naturally, under these con- 
ditions, grave injustices were often perpetrated. So grave was 
the condition of things in 1780, due to general bad government, 
that serious revolts were threatened. We have already noticed 
the famous revolt of Tupac Amaru, which we remember grew 

140 



CAUSES OF WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 141 

out of the corrupt government, especially of the corregidores. 
In the next year, 1781, serious trouble also threatened in New 
Granada. Here the revolutionists soon had more than fifteen 
thousand men under arms and marched against Bogota, crying, 
"Long live the king, but death to bad governors." Three years 
later two agents of these revolutionists visited England in the 
hope of getting arms and other support. 

These revolts, coming at the same time as the successful 
uprising of the English colonies in North America, made the 
Spanish government very apprehensive, and an attempt was 
made at governmental reform, though what was done in this 
direction proved ineffectual. Spain delayed giving help to the 
revolting English colonies, although urged to do so by her ally 
France, because she feared the effect upon her own colonies. 
When she did give aid to the American colonies, in 1779, she 
was at the same time trying to keep out liberal ideas from her 
own colonies by instituting a crusade against suspected books, 
more rigidly restricting education, and by greatly increasing 
political imprisonments. 

Added to the bad government of the Spanish colonies were 
her exasperating economic policieSo It is true that after 1778 
a more Hberal policy was instituted, but even after this at- 
„ . , „ ^ „ . tempted economic reform a large proportion 

Spain's Bad Economic , . r- 7 i • 

PoUdes, Another of the Commercial transactions oi the colonies 

General Cause of ^gj.g g^^i illegal. We havc already given an 

Disaffection . , n • i • i i i 

account of the way S^aiii exploited her col- 
onies, through taxation of all kinds, through the granting of 
monopolies, the selling of offices, and through the exactions of a 
porrupt clergy. All these causes contributed to the general 
disaffection. There was also a growing jealousy, already of 
long standing, between the Spaniards of European birth and 
the Creoles. Practically all the officers appointed by the king 
were Spaniards, while the Creoles had little paiu in directing 
the affairs of either church or state. Down to the year 1810 

Jealousy Between t^l^re Were 160 viceroyS, and 588 captain- 

European-Bom generals, governors, and presidents of audi- 

Spaniards and Creoles ^^^j^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ j^j,gg number of officials 

only eighteen had been natives of the colonies. This becomes 



142 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

very significant when we come to study the revolutions them- 
selves, for every great outstanding revolutionary leader was a 

Creole. 

Immediate Causes of the Revolutions 

Among the immediate causes of the Latin American wars for 
independence may be given the successful Revolution of Eng- 
land's colonies in America. The chief connecting link between 
the two revolutions was Francisco Miranda. Miranda was a 
native of Caracas, born in 1756. He came to the West Indies, 
The American Revo- ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ Spanish expedition, in 1781, 
lution and Francisco took part in a Campaign agaiiist Pensacola, 
de Miranda Florida, and in 1783 visited a number of 

American cities. His experience in North America led him to 
the belief that Spanish America could achieve a like inde- 
pendence, and henceforth he devoted his life to the carrying 
out of this thought. In spite of all precautions which the 
Spanish government took to keep out liberal ideas, during and 
following the American revolution, nevertheless doctrines of 
freedom began to find their way into the very center of 
Spanish power in America. Among those who were preaching 
LiberaiideasFind thesB new doctrines were the Bishop of 
Their Way into Arequipa and the rector of the College of 

Spanish America g^^^ Carlos. Many of the clergy likewise 

joined in this movement and secret societies and clubs were 
formed where liberal ideas were discussed and plans laid to 
convert others to their cause. As a whole, however, the 
Spanish colonies were loyal to the Spanish crown up to the 
very close of the eighteenth century. 

A more important cause of the decline of Spanish power in 
America was the long commercial struggle between England 
and Spain which culminated in the early years of the nine- 
teenth century. The struggle began in the latter quarter of 
TheEngUsh *^® sixteenth century when Hawkins and 

Commercial Interests Drake led a loug line of buccauccrs to prey 
in South America ^^^^ ^^^ Spanish treasure fleets. In the 

middle of the seventeenth century the Enghsh captured Ja- 
maica, after which they proceeded to take over a number of 
the smaller West Indies. Spain had been little interested in 



CAUSES OF WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 143 

the small islands and they were left unoccupied and unclaimed 
until the Dutch, English, and French took them over. With 
these islands as a center, English activities off the coasts of 
Spanish America greatly increased, and all during the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries they became a greater and 
greater menace to the Spanish dominions. 

At the close of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701- 
1713) England gained the contract to supply the Spanish Indies 
with slaves and also a limited right to trade with the Spanish 
colonies. This was the first lawful breach in the Spanish trade 
monopoly, and with this as an entering wedge the English 
England and Spain in greatly increased their activities. In 1739 
the Seventeenth and England and Spain were again at war and 
ighteen entunes ^-^^ English attempted to conquer the island 
of Cuba. Again in the Seven Years' War (1756-63) Spain and 
England renewed the struggle and the British occupied Habana 
and Manila, while English merchants were busy supplying the 
Spanish colonists with duty-free merchandise. In 1779 Spain 
joined her ally France with the American colonies of England 
against her old enemy, and this time Spain regained Florida, 
which England had taken from her in 1763. Again during the 
Napoleon wars England and Spain once more stood face to 
face as enemies. Again England proceeded to attack Spain's 
possessions and to confiscate and capture Spanish ships. 

As a part of England's campaign against France there was 
dispatched in the spring of 1806 an expedition of sixteen hun- 
dred men against Buenos Ayres, for Spain had made an alliance 
with Napoleon in 1795. The commander of this expedition 
had the year previous taken Cape Colony, in South Africa, 
from the Dutch. The English landed without opposition and 
marched toward Buenos Ayres, the Spanish viceroy fleeing to 
Cordoba. On taking the city the English commander declared 
himseK governor. For years the English had been desirous of 
gaining a foothold in South America, and this seemed the 

opportunity they had long hoped for. At 
Buenos A^^es^Js^^ ^^^^ t^^ P^op^e of Buenos Ayres acquiesced 

in the British occupation, and Beresford, the 
English commander, exacted from all the officials, without 



144 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

difficulty, an oath of allegiance to the British crown. Within 
a few weeks, however, the English were overpowered by the 
townspeople of Buenos Ayres, aided by a force which had been 
organized by a French naval officer, Liniers, in the employ of 
the Spanish at Montevideo. There was some hard fighting in 
the streets of Buenos Ayres, but the English were compelled to 
surrender, and Liniers, now a popular idol, was appointed 
viceroy. This victory, which the people of Buenos Ayres had 
achieved without help from Spain, greatly aroused their national 
and race pride. 

A few months after these occurrences another and more for- 
midable British expedition, consisting of four thousand men 
under General Whitelocke, made an attack upon the La Plata. 
The English landed this time in Uruguay, and took Montevideo 
by assault. With Montevideo as a base, the English now made 
an attack upon Buenos Ayres. The Argentines met the Eng- 
lish outside the city, but after some severe fighting they were 
compelled to retire, the English following them into the town. 
The Second EngUsh '^^^^ proved foolish tactics ou the part of the 
Attack Upon Buenos English, for as they marched through the 
Ayres, 1807 narrow streets of the Spanish town the na- 

tives rained down upon them from the housetops stones and 
bullets, so that by the time they reached the main square 
their forces were greatly demorahzed. Here the British were 
met by the Argentines, drawn up behind breastworks. For 
two days the fighting raged, but finally the British were com- 
pelled to ask for terms. Again the people of Argentina had 
defended themselves successfully. They had little dreamed of 
such military prowess, and now that it was revealed beyond 
any doubt, their local pride was greatly stimulated. The 
people of Buenos Ayres, while not desiring to be ruled 
by the English, were willing to trade with them, and Eng- 
lish commercial interests in the La Plata were greatly stimu- 
lated. 

Previous to the events just described the Enghsh had cap- 
tured the island of Trinidad, which gave English commercial 
interests a base at the mouth of the great river Orinoco. This 
also brought Englishmen and English interests very near the 



CAUSES OF WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 145 

north coast of South America. This close proximity of the 
EngHsh to the Spanish colonies could not fail 
S'xSad^ 1^797*"^ to greatly influence the Creole element. When 
the wars for independence began, the revolu- 
tionists found these Englishmen ready with their help and 
encouragement. 

Of the immediate causes of the South American wars for 
independence perhaps none are so important as the influence 
of the Napoleon wars. After conquering Prussia in 1806 and 
making peace with Russia in 1807, Napoleon turned his atten- 
tion to Portugal and Spain. At this time the king of Spain 
was Charles IV, a weak and corrupt monarch, 

Napoleon Seizes the i i j • irrne • j •j.i tvt 

Crown of Spain ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^'^^ Signed a peace With Napo- 

leon and a little later became the active ally 
of the French. Napoleon by 1807 had become anxious to add 
Spain to his empire and began to lay plans to accomplish that 
end. Charles IV and his son, Ferdinand, the heir to the throne, 
had quarreled, and Napoleon was called in to settle their dif- 
ferences. Calling these two "royal clowns" to Bayonne, just 
across the border. Napoleon proceeded to compel them to 
abdicate their throne, and their royal rights were then assumed 
by the wily arbiter (May, 1808). Spain was thereupon given 
to the brother of Bonaparte, Joseph, who at once surrendered 
his kingdom of Naples to become the successor of the Bourbons 
upon the throne of Spain. 

When Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed king in the Latin- 
American capitals the colonists refused to recognize the usurper, 
and everywhere the news was received with cries of "Viva 
Fernando Septimo." One of the first acts of Joseph Bonaparte 
as king of Spain was to confirm all the governors and other 
royal ofiicials in the colonies. This at once cast suspicion upon 
The Colonies Refuse ^^^^e oflficials, as being agcnts of the usurping 
to Recognize Joseph king. An illustration of the feeling of the 
onaparteas mg populace at this time is afforded by occur- 
rences at Caracas. Here a British frigate arrived announcing 
an Anglo-Spanish alliance against Napoleon, just after a French 
vessel arrived with the news of the accession of Joseph Bona- 
parte to the Spanish throne. The people received the Englishmen 



146 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

with enthusiasm, while the Spanish governor officially received 
the French officials. What occurred in Caracas took place in 
practically all Latin-American capitals. The people were every- 
where opposed to French control in Spain and were everywhere 
suspicious of their own local colonial officials, and a condition 
of uncertainty was thus produced throughout the entire Span- 
ish colonial empire. 

The next scene in this drama, which naturally followed upon 
the situation already described, was the overthrow of the 
colonial officials and the setting up of independent govern- 
ments. Thus in August, 1809, the citizens of Quito organized 
a sovereign junta, deposed the governor, and assumed the 
authority of the government. Similar things had already oc- 
curred in Spain, for juntas had been consti- 

Otganizatioii of Juntas 

in Spain and the tuted at various ceuters, such as Seville and 

Colonies in Opposition Asturias, and a national resistance had been 
organized against the French. These colonial 
juntas did not claim independence of Spain, nor did the central 
junta in Spain intend the destruction of the Spanish monarchy, 
but these governments both in the colonies and in Spain pro- 
fessed loyalty to Ferdinand VII, the deposed monarch, and 
professed to be upholding his royal authority. Thus between 
April and July, 1810, "all over South America the principal 
municipalities . . . formed juntas to preserve the authority of 
Ferdinand." The chief juntas thus formed were at Bogota, 
Cartagena, Caracas, Santiago de Chile, and Buenos Ayres. 

This was the situation out of which came Latin-American 
independence. These juntas, at first upholding the authority 
of the deposed king, proclaimed that they were fighting for his 
restoration. Thus through several years this strange condition 
prevailed, while in the meantime th^ people of Latin America 
were getting their first taste of self-government. But "the 
theory of allegiance to a dethroned and captive king, although 
sincerely held by the great majority, could not long survive," 
and in the end, through a perfectly natural evolution, the royal 
authority decreased. Gradually real revolutionary govern- 
ments everywhere came into existence with the avowed inten- 
tion of achieving independence of Spanish authority. 



CAUSES OF WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 147 

READING REFERENCES 

South Amei'ica on the Eve of Emancipation, by Bernard Moses, contains 
several chapters which throw light upon the causes of the wars. 

In Cambridge Modern History, Vol. X, Chapters IX and X, brief sum- 
maries of the causes of the wars may be found. 

History of the South American Republics, by Thomas C. Dawson (G. P. 
Putnam's Sons), treats the revolutionary movement separately, noting 
the revolution in each Republic, and in each instance smmnarizing the 
cavises. 

For the bearing of the European Wars of Napoleon upon Latin Amer- 
ica, Modern European History, by Charles Downer Hazen (Henry Holt & 
Co,, 1916), contains an adequate account. 

The best simimary of the influence of the American Revolution upon 
Latin America is Inter- American Acquaintances, by C. L. Chandler (2d 
Ed., 1917), Chapters I and 11. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 

The Nokthern Movement 

To Venezuela belongs the honor of starting the series of 
revolts which culminated in freeing the colonies of Central 
and South America from the Spanish yoke. Venezuela was an 
agricultural colony, and was therefore one of the most neglected 
of the Spanish possessions. The Spanish officials were few, 
and the nimiber of Spanish residents w^as likewise small. Vene- 
zuela was also much exposed to the influence of both England 
and the United States through trade with 
Jamaica, Trinidad, and Santo Domingo, once 
the chief colony of Spain, "but now emerging from French 
rule into a stormy independence." In 1797 a conspiracy 
had been organized at La Guaira, a Venezuelan port, but it 
obtained little support and had been quickly overcome. The 
one man chiefly responsible for Venezuela's early revolt 
was Francisco Miranda, of whose early career we have 
already spoken. After the close of the American Revolu- 
tion he began at once to lay plans for the independence 
of his own country. Those early plans, however, came to 
naught. 

From the States he went to England, and there submitted 
his plans to the younger Pitt, who at once promised him sup- 
port in case of war. From England he now went to France, 
where the great Revolution was under way, and when the 
Revolutionary army was organized he became an ofiicer. Be- 
Miranda Seeks Help comiug involved m the party struggles, he 
from England and fell Under suspicion, was thrown into prison, 
the United States ^^^ ^^jy escaped through the death of Ro- 
bespierre. Again he turned to England and America for aid. 
He received encouragement at the time from Rufus King, the 
American minister to England, and from Pitt. In 1805 he 
sailed for the United States, where Jefferson received him, and 

148 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 149 

during a stay of fourteen days at the capital dined twice with 
the President. Miranda's hopes of obtaining the help of the 
United States were blasted, however, when he was finally in- 
formed that the Washington government would not officially 
aid him. 

Immediately on receiving this message Miranda began 
preparations for an expedition against Caracas. Two vessels 
were fitted out in New York and a number of Americans en- 
listed. In January the expedition sailed, going first to Santo 

Domingo, and from there to Venezuela. 
i8«^ ^^^ '**°° Aided by Sir Thomas Cochran, an English 

admiral, and two Americans, an attempt was 
made on Puerto Cabello, but two of the vessels were taken, a 
number of the Americans were captured and later executed by 
the Spanish authorities, while Miranda was forced to flee to 
Jamaica. A month later another attempt was made to land a 
force at Coro, but after a successful landing they were again 
forced to withdraw. The population had expressed little in- 
terest in these endeavors, for the time was not yet ripe for a 
successful revolution. 

The influence which finally led the Creoles of Venezuela to 
seek independence was the arrival of the French commissioners 
announcing the ascension of Joseph Bonaparte to the throne 
of Spain. Throughout all of 1809 agitation was carried on by a 
group in Caracas, advocating separation, and they even sent to 
England seeking help for their cause. Finally, on April 19, 
1810, an independent junta was formed at Caracas, "to pre- 
The Independent ^^^^ *^® rights of Ferdinand VII," and the 

Junta of Caracas, Spanish officials were compelled to resign. 
April 19, i8io Some of the provinces, however, refused to 

submit to this seK-constituted government, the provinces of 
Coro and Maracaibo especially. Outside, however, of these 
royalist provinces the Junta was everywhere recognized, and 
in April, 1811, the Cabildos of the various towns were requested 
to elect members to a Congress. On July 5 this Congress 
assembled, and a Declaration of Independence was adopted, 
declaring the seven eastern provinces free and independent 
states. Miranda, who had returned from Europe, was given 



150 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

the military command of the new republic. Several royalist 
revolts occurred, one at Caracas, headed by the clergy, and 
another at Valencia, both of which Miranda successfully put 
down. The most serious menace came from the royahst prov- 
ince of Coro, whence a force under Monteverde, an able Span- 
ish commander, was advancing upon Caracas. 

In the midst of this impending danger to the new republic a 
terrible earthquake destroyed Caracas and killed over twenty 
thousand people in the revolting provinces, while twelve thou- 
sand persons lost their lives in the capital alone. The clergy 
immediately took advantage of this disaster and began to 
preach divine judgment to the terrified people, with the result 
The Great Earthquake that thousands deserted the patriot cause and 
of 1812 and the went over to the royalists. Monteverde, the 

Surrender of Caracas. t i 

Death of Miranda, royalist commauder, met httle opposition as 
^8^^ he advanced upon Caracas, and in July, 1812, 

Miranda signed a capitulation, securing free departure for the 
patriot leaders. Bolivar, a prominent leader of the Creole 
party, in charge of the fortress of Puerto Cabello, abandoned 
his command, and proceeded to Caracas, where he and several 
other officers threw Miranda into prison. Here Miranda was 
found by the Spanish commander when he took the city. Bolivar 
and the other officers were permitted to return to their estates, 
but Miranda, was kept in prison, finally being removed to 
Spain, where he was taken from prison to prison, until his 
death, in 1816. 

Simon Bolivar, who had been associated with Miranda, was 
a Creole, bom at Caracas in 1783, and at an early age fell heir 
to large estates in Venezuela. He received his education in 
Europe, spending much time at Madrid, and traveling in 
Europe. He found himself in Paris during the closing scenes 
of the Revolution, and there imbibed some of the Revolutionary 
doctrines. He had returned to Venezuela in 1809, "& childless 
widower of twenty-six/' and at once threw in his lot with the 
Revolutionary party, then just beginning operations. On re- 
turning to South America from Europe he 

Simon Bohvar , 

had spent some time m the United States, 
where he had observed for the first time the successful workings 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 151 

of free institutions. After the fall of the first Venezuelan 
repubUc BoUvar retired to his estates, but not for long. He 
had determined to devote his life and fortune to the winning 
of Venezuelan independence, and from that time he became 
the "chief inspiration of the movement and ultimately the 
liberator of five extensive republics." He was not a leader to 
inspire confidence by his personal appearance, for he had a 
small and puny body, and was of unattractive face and figure. 
He was also vain and immoral, two typical Creole traits. 

After the overthrow of the first Venezuelan republic in 1812, 
Bolivar went to Cartagena, where he offered his sword to the 
Junta of that city, for New Granada had declared also for 
complete independence. Given a small force, he began opera- 
tions on the Magdalena river, which he conducted with both 
skill and success. He now succeeded in raising a considerable 
force of New Granadians, and, marching eastward, proceeded 
to crush the royalist forces in Venezuela. Within fifty days 
he had cleared the two western provinces, and within thirteen 
The Second RepubUc mouths after Miranda's surrender he reen- 
of Venezuela, and the tcred Caracas at the head of his victorious 
ampaigno i 14 forces. A second Venezuelan republic came 
into existence, with Bolivar at its head, with the title of "Lib- 
erator." Meanwhile new forces were collecting, which were 
soon to crush this second republic. Boves, a Spanish sergeant, 
dismissed from the Spanish army for misconduct, had gone 
among the warlike Indians of the plains and had succeeded in 
organizing in the name of the king a force of four thousand 
Indian horsemen, and was making his way toward the capital. 
In Jime, 1814, Bolivar met these forces, and at La Puerta suf- 
fered a disastrous defeat. Killing his prisoners, Bolivar de- 
serted Caracas, and fled with a band of revolutionists. Cross- 
ing the mountains, he once more offered his services to New 
Granada. 

Bolivar came to New Granada at an opportune moment, for 
after five years of stormy independence the country was reduced 
to a state of civil war, due to the rivalries and jealousies of 
the various Juntas. Both Bogota and Cartagena had set up 
governments, independent of the Congress, and Bolivar pro- 



152 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

ceeded to reduce these independent centers. Meanwhile a new 
and able commander, Morillo, with a force of 

New Granada 

ten thousand troops, was sent over from 
Spain by Ferdinand, now restored to his throne. To this large 
force New Granada fell an easy prey, and once more Bolivar 
was forced to flee. New Granada was reduced to obedience, 
and one hundred and twenty-five persons were executed as 
traitors. The revolution appeared to be crushed, with the 
leaders either dead or in exile. Not only in the north was the 
revolution seemingly ended, but likewise everjrwhere else, ex- 
cept in Argentina, throughout Spanish America. The only 
patriot forces in either New Granada or Venezuela were a few 
guerilla bands, and a body of horse that had been gathered by 
Paez, an illiterate peasant, operating along the Orinoco. 

It was with this force of Paez that Bolivar next appeared. 
He had succeeded in organizing a small fleet in Haiti, largely 
manned by British sailors, and when he appeared on the 
Orinoco he was at once recognized as leader. By the early 
part of the year 1818 he had gained control of the whole course 
Campaign of 1817- ^f the rfver, having captured Angostura in 
1818 Along the July, 1817, and the fortress of San Fernando 

Orinoco j^ February, 1818. In the meantime the 

Spanish commander Morillo had returned from New Granada 
to Venezuela, and when Bolivar made an attempt to capture 
Caracas he was again badly defeated, and was left in desperate 
straits. At this juncture Bolivar contracted for a contingent 
of Irish and British troops, just released from the wars of 
Europe, and by the end of the year 1818 some six thousand 
had arrived. Against these soldiers no troops of South Amer- 
ica could successfully stand. 

Of these six thousand British subjects "five sixths of them 
perished in the war, some in sanguinary fights, some under 
stress of labor, as prisoners in the torrid climate of Panama, 
but most by famine, pestilence, and hardships, such as they 
had never known in European warfare: they joined an army of 
„, „ almost naked men, destitute of baggage, com- 

The Bntish Forces . . ' , i i V> i • 

nussariat, surgeons, and ambulance, nghtmg 
in a tropical country of indescribable difficulty, where capture 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 153 

meant probable death, and victory was followed by a general 
slaughter of prisoners, where the path of war led across plains 
which turned from desert to swamp with the change of season, 
through a labyrinth of deep rivers infested by crocodiles and 
mosquitos, and over a vast mass of frozen mountains." South 
American independence owes much to the help rendered by 
British subjects. 

Bolivar now conceived the daring idea of uniting his forces 
with those of New Granada. He accordingly started westward 
along the Orinoco. His plans were to cross the Andes, over 
the difficult Paya Pass, and surprise the Spanish army en- 
camped in the valley. This was a very hazardous undertaking, 
for the road over the mountains in many places was but a 
track, and during their march the rain fell in torrents. Reach- 
The Campaign of ^^g ^^^ highest regions, the cold was so severe 

1819. T he Battle of^ that all the horses perished, as well as a large 
°^^*^ number of his men. The expedition, how- 

ever, was successful in completely surprising the Spaniards, 
who, not knowing the size of Bolivar's army, hesitated to at- 
tack him. This delay gave the patriots the needed opportunity 
to rest and to procure horses. Finally, on August 7, 1819, 
one of the most important battles in the wars for independence 
was fought at Boyaca. The patriots were completely vic- 
torious, and Bolivar entered Bogota. Returning after this vic- 
tory to Venezuela, Bolivar ordered Venezuela and New Granada 
united into a single republic, to be called the Republic of Co- 
lombia, over which he assumed authority. At the same time he 
removed the capital from Angostura, on the Orinoco, to Cucuta, 
a town situated on the border between the two former republics. 

After Boyaca, Morillo and Bolivar signed a six-months' 
truce, and the next year a new Spanish commander, General 
De Torre, came out, succeeding Morillo. As soon as the truce 
was ended, Bolivar assumed the offensive, and sought battle 
with the Spaniards, now drawn up in the plain of Carabobo 
Campaign of 1821. ^* *^^ ^^^^ ^^ *^^ mountain passes to the 
Battieof C arabob o, west of Valencia. Bolivar had nine thousand 

®' troops, among them being a British legion of 

more than a thousand. De Torre, the Spanish commander, 



154 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

had divided his army, thus placing himself at a disadvantage. 
For the patriots, the British bore the brunt of the fighting, the 
turning point in the battle being a stirring bayonet charge by 
the British, which turned a desperate situation into a complete 
victory. The Spanish army fled to Puerto Cabello, while 
Bolivar advanced unopposed into Caracas, where a second 
time he was proclaimed the liberator and saviour of his coun- 
try. With this campaign the war in Venezuela and New 
Granada was won and independence achieved. 

On August 30, 1821, a constitution for the new Republic of 

Colombia was adopted by a convention meeting at Cucuta. 

Bolivar was made president, although the 

The^constitution of ^^^j^^ ^^ ^j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^ assumed by the 

vice-president, while Bolivar continued in 
command of the army. Bolivar now left for Ecuador and 
Peru to continue the fight for the liberation of the whole con- 
tinent. Meanwhile the patriot army in Venezuela succeeded 
in driving the Spaniards from Puerto Cabello, and the whole 
country was freed of Spanish forces. 

While Bolivar was leading the forces of Venezuela and New 
Granada to victory and independence, similar movements were 
under way in what are now Ecuador and Bolivia. In the early 
part of the year 1809 the Creoles of Quito determined to over- 
throw the Spanish oflacials and set up an independent Junta 
There were only a few Spanish troops in Quito and the move- 
ment was successfully carried out on August 9. The Spanish 
officials, however, succeeded in gathering an 
EcmdoT'"*'""^ army of Indians, easily defeated the revolu- 
tionists, and the president of Quito was re- 
stored to power. Again, in 1810, the Creoles made an attempt 
to capture the barracks at Quito, but were driven off, and many 
of them killed. Later Castilla, the president, resigned, to be 
succeeded by a new Junta, and the war continued. Royalists 
and revolutionists each raised levies among the Indians, and as 
the armies became better organized, the war became more 
cruel and bloody. Finally, in 1812, the Spaniards gained the 
upper hand, and their army, under the able command of 
General Montes, took Quito, and he ruled as president for nine 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 155 

years. All revolutionary movements in Ecuador were prac- 
tically at an end until Bolivar appeared with aid from the 
newly organized republic of Colombia. In the fall of 1821 
General Sucre arrived by sea at Guayquil with seventeen 
The Battle of hundred veterans from New Granada, while 

Pichincha, May 24, Bolivar was advancing from Bogota south- 
ward. Later Sucre received twelve hundred 
reenforcements from San Martin, proceeded toward Quito, and 
took up his position on the slopes of the volcano, Pichincha, over- 
looking the city. Here was fought the decisive battle in Ecuador's 
fight for independence on the morning of May 24, 1822, The 
forces of Sucre were completely victorious. The royaUst army 
was practically annihilated and surrendered the following day. 

The independence of Ecuador had been won by outside 
forces, for the army of Sucre was composed of Colombians and 
Argentines. After the victory at Pichincha the Assembly at 
Quito accepted incorporation into the Republic of Colombia, 
now a vast confederation. 

While the revolutionary movement was under way in all 
the other South American capitals, Peru alone remained quiet. 
Lima was the very center of the Spanish power in America, 
and although revolutionary ideas had early found entrance 
into Creole society of the capital, yet the energy and activity 
displayed by Abascal, the viceroy, made an open revolt seem 
Peru During the impossible. In 18l4 there was an Indian 

Early Years of the rising in the rcgion of Cuzco, led by an 
Revolution. 1809-1820 j^^^^ cacique, but although it was aided by 
the people of La Paz, the revolt was not formidable and was 
soon put down after a horrible massacre near Lake Titicaca. 
Peru and Ecuador were the centers from which the Spanish 
authorities sent out their expeditions to quell the revolts in 
other parts of the continent, and by 1816 the revolution every- 
where seemed to be at an end. It was not until the northern 
movement, led by Bolivar and his able lieutenant Sucre, and 
the southern movement, led by San Martin, had won inde- 
pendence for all the other districts that Peruvian independence 
was attained. Peru was the last stronghold of Spanish power 
in South America. 



156 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Before we can recount the complete story of Peru's inde- 
pendence we must turn to the southern revolutionary move- 
ment. This began in Buenos Ayres, swept across the con- 
tinent, liberated Chile, and then swung northward to join 
forces with Bolivar. 

The Southern Movement 

Buenos Ayres was more democratic and had less of the 
aristocratic element than any of the other large cities in South 
America. The city had grown very rapidly and had attracted 
the most adventurous and enterprising people. There was 
also present an especial hatred of the Spaniard, due to Spain's 
repressive policy in regard tjg^trade. Argentina had also, as we 
have already noticed, succeeded in repelling the British in 
1806 and again in 1807, and this achievement had created a 
national consciousness not elsewhere found in South America. 
Beginnings of the When the news of Joseph Bonaparte's usur- 
Revoiution in patiou of the Spanish throne reached Buenos 

Argentina Ayrcs it was received with indignation. 

Liniers, the viceroy, appointed after the expulsion of the 
English in 1807, was favored by the Creoles, and on the at- 
tempt of the royalist governor of Montevideo to displace him 
he was reinstated by Creole troops. The central Junta of 
Spain now sent over Admiral Cisneros as viceroy, who found 
on his arrival the government in the hands of a small group of 
men who were working for independence. The feeling be- 
tween the Creole party and the Spaniards grew more intense, 
and finally, on May 22, 1810, a committee of the Creole party 
waited upon the viceroy and demanded his resignation. The 
militia was entirely in the hands of the Creoles, and he was 
therefore powerless to resist. On May 25, now celebrated as 
Argentina's independence day, a great armed assembly met in 
the plaza and a Junta was named from among the Creole 
leaders. 

Like the other early revolutionary movements, the Argen- 
tines did not intend their act in organizing their Junta as a 
separation from Spain, but professed to be acting in the name 
and for the interest of Ferdinand VII. The attempt, however, 




90 ao 10 60 50 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 157 

to unite the whole viceroyalty under the Junta failed. Para- 
guay was approached on the matter of union, 
the* Junto"™*" ** ^^* ^^^^ ^^^ Organized their own govern- 
ment, and declined to unite, while at the 
same time a reactionary movement was under way at Cordoba. 
Montevideo was still held by the viceroy, but he was overcome 
in 1814. The patriots of Argentina also desired to unite Bo- 
livia with Argentina, but the influential Creole leaders of that 
district objected, and when in 1811-12 an Argentine army 
invaded Bolivia they were defeated on the shores of Lake 
Titicaca by the royalist forces sent out by the viceroy of Peru. 
The victorious Spanish forces in turn invaded Argentina, pur- 
suing the fleeing patriots. They were now defeated by General 
Belgrano with a patriot army at Tucuman in 
^we of Tucuman. ^^^ ^^jj ^^ jg ^2. This may be counted one of 

the decisive battles in the South American 
wars for independence, for it saved Buenos Ayres from cap- 
ture, and probably the South American wars from extinction. 
Again the Argentines attempted invasion of Bolivia in 1813, 
and again were defeated and driven out. In October of the 
same year the army of Belgrano was practically destroyed at 
Vilcapujio. It was at this juncture that a new leader appeared 
in Argentina in the person of San Martin. 

Jose de San Martin, the son of a Spanish official, was born 
in a little town on the Uruguay in 1778. He was sent to Spain, 
where he received a military education, and was engaged with 
the Spanish army in many campaigns between 1793 and 1811, 
attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Hearing of the wars 
for iudependence in Argentina, San Martin decided to return 
to his native land and landed at Buenos Ayres in March, 1812. 
At first he was given command of some regiments in Buenos 
Ayres, which he at once set about drilling, 
and soon made of them the finest body of 
troops in South America. After the defeat of Belgrano, San 
Martiu succeeded him as the head of the Argentine army, and 
at once began to put into operation a comprehensive plan, 
which included not only the independence of Argentina but 
also the freeing of the whole continent. He saw the futility 



158 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

of attempting to strike at the Spanish power by way of the 
mountains in upper Peru, and began to elaborate a plan to 
invade Peru by way of Chile. To carry out this scheme he 
gave up the command of the army of Argentina, and in Sep- 
tember, 1814, asked for the governorship of the province of 
Cuyo, at the eastern end of the Uspallata pass over the Andes. 

A revolutionary movement had begun in Chile, as in other 
centers in South America, when the news of the deposition of 
Ferdinand reached them. Everywhere sentiment was against 
the French, and leading Creoles proposed the establishment of 
an independent junta. Feeling rapidly became more intense 
when in May, 1810, the captain-general ordered the arrest of 
the leading Creoles. This action roused such a storm of pro- 
test that the captain-general resigned and placed the govern- 
ment in the hands of a wealthy nobleman. The agitation, 
however, continued, and in September, 1810, a Junta was 
organized, which assumed the government. In 1811 a Congress 
was elected, but soon after it was called to- 
Movement LnfcwiT gether the Several members from the southern 
provinces withdrew, and proceeded to organ- 
ize a separate government at Concepcion under the leadership 
of Rosas. The Santiago faction was led by Carrera, a young 
Creole of great ambition, who succeeded in gaining some small 
advantages over the Spanish. His conduct of the government 
was, however, of the worst sort, and factions soon arose against 
him. In 1813 the Spanish authorities in Peru sent down a 
force to subdue the Chilean revolt, and because Carrera was 
unable to meet this Spanish army he was forced to withdraw, 
and was succeeded by Bernardo O'Higgins, the natural son of 
the former viceroy, who had thrown in his lot with the revolu- 
tionists. O'Higgins, however, was unable to gain any per- 
manent successes against the Spanish forces, and in 1814 the 
royalists regained complete control of Chile. From 1814 to 
1817 all traces of the revolution were crushed, and O'Higgins 
fled across the Andes to Mendoza, where he joined San Martin 
in organizing an army which was to shatter forever the rule of 
the Spaniards on the Pacific. 

For two years San Martin, aided by the Chilean patriot 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 159 

O'Higgins, labored in this extreme out-of-the-way province, 
organizing and drilhng troops, and gathering supplies for a 
supreme effort. Chilean patriots flocked to their standard, as 
did also Argentines, and gradually a well-equipped and dis- 
ciplined army was prepared. 

While San Martin was busy training his army of Chileans 
and Argentines at Mendoza, affairs at Buenos Ayres were in 
a turbulent condition. Civil war broke out between the mili- 
tary chiefs at the capital and the provinces, while insurrections 
against the ruling faction at Buenos Ayres followed one an- 
other in rapid succession. Military dictators rose and fell, 
„.' .,„,.. . while the provinces more and more ignored 

Civil War in Argentina <• i t, 

the pretense of the Buenos Ayres government 
to rule over them. During this period of disturbance various 
schemes of government were suggested. Belgrano proposed 
that the descendant of the Incas be made emperor of South 
America, while others favored inviting a member of the reign- 
ing Portuguese house to rule in Argentina. The only definite 
result from these proposals was the Declaration of Independ- 
ence which was made at Tucuman by a Congress assembled 
there, on July 9, 1816, at which most of the provinces were 
represented. During the whole of the remaining years of the 
revolution this turbulent condition prevailed in Argentina; 
indeed, the contest between Buenos Ayres and the outlying 
provinces continued for long years afterward. Argentina's 
part in the final struggle for independence in South America 
is largely the story of the activities on the sea of the Irish sea 
captain, WiUiam Brown, who commanded the Argentine ships, 
and who succeeded in destroying the Spanish sea power on the 
Atlantic. This was a large factor in the success of the cam- 
paign of San Martin on the Pacific. 

The revolutionary movement in Uruguay up to 1816 was 
more or less a part of the Argentine movement. After the 
Creoles had estabhshed their independent Junta at Buenos 
Ayres, Montevideo became the refuge for the royalists, and in 
1811 the governor of Montevideo received the appointment of 
viceroy and proceeded to make war upon the Creoles of Buenos 
Ayres. The leadership of the Uruguayan patriot forces was 



160 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

assumed by a dauntless guerrilla leader, Jose Artigas, who on 
May 18, 1811, defeated the royalist forces 
uragu^r'"*'*'" ^ jus* outside Montevideo, but did not succeed 
in capturing the city. This was accomplished 
soon after, however, by an army from Brazil, and the Portu- 
guese continued to hold Uruguay as a part of their territory 
until 1825, when finally Uruguayan independence was achieved, 
aided by Buenos Ayres. 

By the end of 1817 San Martin was ready with his army to 
begin the invasion of Chile. It was the middle of January 
when he broke camp, and dividing his forces 
into two divisions, began the ascent of the 
lofty Andes. One division was to go up by the Uspallata pass, 
while the other was to take the more difl&cult Patos pass to the 
north. The Spaniards were taken completely by surprise, and 
on February 12 the combined forces of San Martin and O'Hig- 
gins met and defeated the royahsts at Chacabuco, situated 
not far to the east of Santiago. The next day the Spanish 
governor fled from Santiago, and San Martin entered the citj^, 
where he was urged to assume the govern- 
?elmaS^^i?ir' ^^ent. This he declined to do, but suggested 
that he would be glad to have O'Higgins, 
his staunch friend and ally, appointed. This was accordingly 
done. But the independence of Chile was not yet accom- 
plished, for the southern provinces still remained in Spanish 
hands. 

Soon after the victory at Chacabuco San Martin hurried 
back to Buenos Ayres to urge upon the Argentina government 
the necessity of creating a fleet on the Pacific, in order to assure 
the independence of South America. Before he could accom- 
plish his mission news came to San Martin that a Spanish army 
was active in southern Chile. Hurrying back to Chile, he pre- 
pared his army to meet the attack. In the 
Ap^^s!"i8i8* ^'^'"' fi^st engagement the royalists attacked the 
Chileans in the night, and completely sur- 
prised them. San Martin was forced to retreat to Santiago. 
Undismayed by this reverse, the patriot commander reorganized 
his forces and prepared for the oncoming Spanish army. A few 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 161 

miles to the south of Santiago, on the morning of April 5, 1818, 
the battle was joined and after a hard struggle the Spanish 
army was completely defeated. Twelve hundred royalists were 
killed out of an army of five thousand, while two thousand two 
hundred were captured. With this victory the first part of 
San Martin's comprehensive plan was accomplished, and Chile 
had won her independence. 

Again after the victory of Maipo San Martin returned to 
Buenos Ayres to gain the cooperation of Argentina in his attack 
upon Peru. This he finally accomplished, and a combined fleet 
of Chilean and Argentina ships was collected in the Pacific, 
under the command of the British officer, Lord Thomas Coch- 
rane. The fleet was largely manned by British and American 
sailors. Meanwhile San Martin was engaged in collecting an 
army for the invasion of Peru. The years 1818 to 1820 were 
given to this task, and after great discouragements he succeeded 
by the latter year in getting together an army of some four 
thousand. Placing this army on board the ships of Lord 
San Martin Invades Cochrane's fleet in August, 1820, they ar- 
Peni, September, rived at the bay of Pisco the following 
^ ^° month, where they landed without opposition. 

Up to this time no revolutionary movement of any consequence 
had taken place in Peru. Lima alone was defended by nine 
thousand soldiers, while an army of six thousand was guarding 
the Bolivian border. San Martin knew he was hopelessly out- 
numbered, but he also knew that many of the royalist forces 
were Indians, who were secretly in favor of the revolution. He 
accordingly adopted the policy of avoiding a pitched battle, 
while he sent out small bodies of troops to arouse the natives 
and win them away from the royalist cause. Meanwhile San 
Martin transferred his main force to Huacho, seventy miles 
north of Lima. 

The policy adopted by San Martin was completely successful. 
Desertions from the Spanish army became frequent, while the 
viceroy feared to attack for fear of insurrection at Lima. The 
royalists were expecting reenforcements from Spain, where a 
large army was being prepared. This hoped-for relief, how- 
ever, was destined not to arrive, for a mutiny among the Span- 



162 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

ish troops occurred on the very eve of their embarkation, which 
began a Spanish revolution, making it impos- 
u^j^yST2i sible for Ferdinand to send out any help to 
the viceroy. When this news reached Pez- 
uela, the viceroy, he determined to return to Spain, and the 
Spanish officers chose La Serna, one of their own number, to 
succeed him. La Serna now entered into negotiations with 
San Martin, hoping to come to some peaceful settlement of 
the whole South American question. These negotiations, how- 
ever, were without result and the Spaniards evacuated Lima 
on July 6. On July 28 San Martin entered the city and a re- 
public was proclaimed, with San Martin the temporary dic- 
tator with the title of protector. 

San Martin continued to manage the affairs of Peru until 
the summer of 1822, all the time hampered by jealousies and 
growing distrust on the part of the leading Peruvians. At this 
time the royalist army began to take the offensive, and San 
Martin realized the necessity of gaining help. Meanwhile 
Bolivar was approaching. Sucre had won the battle of Pichin- 
cha in May, 1822, thus emancipating Ecuador from Spanish 
rule. In the fall of 1822 San Martui met 

The Meeting Between „ ,. . ,i , . p /^ -i 

San Martin and • Bolivar m the coast towD. 01 (juayaquil. 
BoUvar at Guayaquu, Exactly what took placc at this interview 

^' ^ ^* has never been disclosed, but we know that 

San Martin offered to serve under Bolivar. San Martin ex- 
pected to find in Bolivar an unselfish patriot, but of this expec- 
tation he was soon disillusioned, for he found the liberator of 
Colombia busy forming plans for his own aggrandizement. 
San Martin soon saw that he could not work with Bolivar, and 
on September 20, 1822, he resigned his authority and retired 
from Peru, leaving Bolivar in full possession. 

After his retirement San Martin spent some time in Chile, 
later going to Argentina, but his life became so unpleasant, 
due to the machinations of his enemies, that he finally left 
South America, to spend the remainder of his life in Europe. 
He lived until 1850, dying at Boulogne. San Martin was an 
extremely modest man. He was never self-seeking, never at- 
tempted to gain anjrthing for his own advantage. It is said 



THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE 163 

that he never made a speech in his hfe, and he always hated 
An Estimate of San display of every kind. He might have re- 
^"^ mained in South America and taken part in the 

endless civil wars, but rather than do that he went into volun- 
tary exile. South Americans have but recently come to appre- 
ciate the services of this really great man, and now there are 
few cities in Argentina that have not erected a monument to 
his memory. To San Martin, more than to any other, the 
independence of Argentina, Chile, and Peru is due. 

Bolivar now took up the work where San Martin had left it. 
He had expected that Peru would at once invite him and his 
army to come to their help, but at first there was no disposition 
on the part of the Peruvians to do this. There were still many 
royalist soldiers in Peru, and in 1823 they became active and 
defeated the Peruvians. --Bolivar was now asked to render 
assistance, and he accordingly entered Lima and was pro- 
claimed director. Leaving Lima, he repaired northward into 
The Battle of Colombia, where he hastily gathered an army. 

Ayacucho, September This done, he set out for Peru to give aid to 
^' ^^^^ Sucre, now hard pressed by royalist forces. 

An engagement was fought at Junin on August 5, 1824, at 
which the patriots barely snatched a victory, out of defeat. 
Later Sucre met the royalists at Ayacucho, in central Peru, 
about half way between Lima and Cuzco. Here the last battle 
in the South American wars for independence was fought, and 
it was a worthy close to the long struggle. Six thousand pa- 
triots met and defeated nine thousand royalists. The viceroy 
was made a prisoner, and soon afterward upward of twenty- 
three thousand royalist troops surrendered in Peru. Callao 
still held out for some months longer, but in January, 1826, 
this last Spanish stronghold gave way, and the whole continent 
was freed from Spanish domination. 

READING REFERENCES 

Perhaps the best brief account of the South American wars for Inde- 
pendence may be foimd in The Cambridge Modern History, Vol. X, Chap- 
ter IX. 

Another brief accoimt may be found in Narrative and Critical History 
of America, by Justin Winsor, Vol. VIII. 



164 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

South American Republics, by Thomas C. Dawson, Vols. I and II, 
furnish good popular accounts and each country receives separate treat- 
ment. 

The Independence of the South American Republics, by Frederic Logan 
Paxson (1903), is largely devoted to an exposition of the policy of the 
United States and England toward the wars for Independence. 

Other useful books for this period are Simon Bolivar, by F. L. Petre 
(1904); Miranda and the Revolutionizing of Spanish America, by W. S. 
Robertson; Am. Hist. Association Reports, 1907. 

Rise of the Spanish-American Republics as Told in the Lives of Their 
Liberators, by W. S. Robertson (Appleton, 1918). 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL AND THE INDEPENDENCE 
OF MEXICO 

Portugal as well as Spain became involved in the Napo- 
leonic wars. After the treaty between France and Spain 
had brought about friendly relations between those two coun- 
tries, Portugal continued to admit English ships to her ports. 
England and Portugal had been on friendly terms for more 
than two centuries and Portugal was unwilUng to forego this 
friendship at the behest of Napoleon, so when Napoleon de- 
manded that Portugal make war on England, 
Po^JsaT "°* ^^^ confiscate all English property, Portugal 

refused. This refusal led Napoleon to send 
an army into Portugal. Resistance was hopeless, and Dom 
John, the regent, determined to take the royal family and sail 
for Brazil, Portugal's great colony in America. Accordingly, 
the regent, the Queen, Maria I, his insane mother, his imme- 
diate family, and a large number of nobles and officials and the 
treasury of the kingdom, set sail from Lisbon November 29, 
1807. The next day the French army reached Lisbon only to 
see the masts of the fleet bearing the royal family disappearing 
down the Tagus. 

The court reached Bahia on January 25, 1808, and received 
a royal welcome from the inhabitants of the old capital, who 
would have been glad to have the court remain. Rio de Ja- 
neiro, however, had been selected as the new seat of the royal 
family and thither they proceeded after a short stay at Bahia. 
The coming of the court to Brazil was to begin a new policy. 
The comin of the ^^^ Dom John at once threw open the ports 
Royal FamUy to to foreign Commerce and a new era of pros- 

Brazu, 1807-1808 perity began. Previously all intercourse be- 

tween Brazil and foreign nations had been prohibited, while at 
the same time the crown drew vast revenues from her great 
colony. Dom John also removed the restrictions against indus- 

165 



166 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

tries and Brazil enjoyed a new activity along many lines. A 
royal mint was established, and also a National Bank and 
Military School, as well as the Royal Printing Press and Med- 
ical School. 

While these beneficial reforms were taking place the govern- 
ment was being organized on the old Portuguese model. Dom 
John had brought with him a vast number of officials, eccle- 
siastics, nobles, and adventurers, all of whom expected support 
from the people of Brazil. Dom John was a well-meaning ruler, 
but weak and undecided. As officialdom increased the ex- 
penses likewise grew, and heavy taxes were imposed upon the 
people. The regent was lavish with honors 

The Court at Rio de ^j re i • i .'ii n 

Janeiro and omces, whereas previously titles of no- 

bility had been almost unknown. Brazilians 
now vied with the Portuguese in seeking these honors and "it 
is said that Dom John conferred more honorary insignia while 
in Brazil than had all the kings of the House of Braganza who 
had preceded him." The management of the finances was bad 
and it was not long until they were in utmost confusion. But 
in spite of these handicaps Brazil prospered, for foreign trade 
brought immigrants, English shipbuilders, and artisans, as well 
as Swedish, German, and French, who by their example of 
energy and industry diffused new energy into the country. 

The year after the removal of the Portuguese court to Brazil 
an expedition was sent to occupy French Guiana in retaliation 
for the French invasion of Portugal. Attempts were also made 
to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo and Buenos Ayres, 
and the Spanish colonists were invited to place themselves 
under Portuguese protection. This proffer was refused, how- 
ever, and in 1817 the Brazilians captured Montevideo, which 
The Kingdom of ^^^^ ^®^^ ^^ ^ proviuce of Brazil for a num- 

Portugai, Brazu, and ber of years. In 1816 the mad Queen Maria 
garves ^.^^ ^^^ Dom John assumed the title, John 

VI, King of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarves. The decision of 
John VI to remain in Brazil, and the changing of the name of 
the kingdom, produced growing discontent in the homeland. 
The government in Brazil was not in the hands of natives, for 
the Portuguese held practically every office, and this condition 



THE INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO 167 

produced discontent. This dissatisfaction was heightened by a 
decree levying heavy taxes upon Brazihan customs for a period 
of forty years for the benefit of the nobles of Portugal, who had 
suffered in the war with France. 

In 1817 plots were discovered both in Portugal and Brazil 
looking toward the establishment of popular government, but 
were easily put down. The discovery of republican desires on the 
part of the Brazilians induced the king to send to Portugal for a 
body of forty-five hundred veteran troops, who were stationed 
at the various important centers. In 1820 another revolution 
broke out in Portugal, and this time repre- 
182^0 *^° ^ °'^° sentative government was established. The 

Portuguese troops stationed in Brazil were 
friendly toward this liberal movement and revolted in order 
to compel the king to accept the constitution which had been 
proclaimed in Portugal. Things were in a serious condition 
when Dom Pedro, the son of King John, came forward as a 
mediator between the troops and the king. The king finally 
accepted the constitution and appointed a new ministry. 

Soon after this King John decided to return to Portugal, in- 
fluenced by public opinion there and also by the British gov- 
ernment. This he did much against his desire, leaving Dom 
Pedro as regent. Fortunately for Brazil, many of the nobles and 
hangers-on of the court accompanied him, though he carried 
off a vast sum of specie from the National Bank. This proce- 
The Movement ^^^® filled the Brazifiaus with alarm, and 

Toward Nationalism when the Cortes of Portugal ordered the 
™^"^ prince, Dom Pedro, also to return, a crisis 

was precipitated. Brazilians foresaw that if their prince re- 
turned to Portugal, Brazil would probably be reduced to her 
old position as a colony instead of remaining an integral part 
of the kingdom, and the old restrictions would be renewed. As 
a result of this the patriotic party, which had before consisted 
only of those who favored a republic, now began to advocate 
separation from the mother country. Dom Pedro was torn 
asunder. He did not wish to be a traitor to his father or to 
Portugal, and for a time he strongly considered returning to- 
Portugal. 



168 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The leader of the party for Brazilian independence was Jose 
Bonifacio de Andrada. Andrada was a man of statesmanlike 
qualities, besides being a distinguished scientist. He had taken 
part in the Peninsular war, had become disgusted with the 
Portuguese government, and on his return to Brazil, in 1819, 
became a stanch advocate of separation and independence. 
The Independence of ^n the demand of the Cortes that Dom 
Brazfl, September 7, Pedro retum, great pressure was brought to 
^^^* bear upon the prince by leading Brazilians, 

and he was at last persuaded to remain and defend Brazil not 
against his father but against the Cortes. A new ministry was 
formed in which Andrada was given a chief place, whUe a Legis- 
lative Assembly was called on June 3, 1822. At first Dom 
Pedro accepted the title of "Perpetual Protector and Defender 
of Brazil." Finally, on September 7, 1822, the independence of 
Brazil was declared by the prince, and on October 12 he was 
declared the constitutional emperor of Brazil. 

Several of the ports were still occupied by Portuguese troops, 
and the next thing attempted after the declaration of inde- 
pendence was to secure these ports. Lord Thomas Cochrane 
was made the commander of the imperial fleet of Brazil, and he 
Expulsion of successfully blockaded the coast. On July 2, 

Portuguese Troops 1823, the Portuguese commander at Bahia 
from Brazil ^^^ forced to Surrender, and soon after the 

garrison at Montevideo was also expelled. By the end of the 
year the emperor was established securely upon his new throne, 
and the empire of Brazil had become an accomplished fact. 
On August 29, 1825, largely through British influence, Portu- 
gal recognized the independence of Brazil. 

The Independence of Mexico 
The causes of the revolution in Mexico were somewhat dif- 
ferent from those which gave Hberty to South America. Be- 
sides the jealousy existing between the Creole class and the 
European-born Spaniards, the oppressive taxation and bad 
economic policies, there were certain other grievances peculiar 
to Mexico. In 1804 certain benevolent funds, amounting to 
$45,000,000, invested in mortgages, were called in for th^ 



THE INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO 169 

benefit of Spain. As a result there were many forced sales, 
and many were ruined. There followed also 
Mexican Revolution Other exactions and confiscations, and when 
Joseph Bonaparte succeeded Ferdinand VII on 
the throne of Spain the City of Mexico urged the viceroy, Iturri- 
garay, to declare the country independent. The viceroy pro- 
posed a Congress, but before it could be called together a 
conspiracy, made up mostly of Spaniards who feared separa- 
tion would result in their loss of their privileged positions, over- 
threw the viceroy, and he was sent to Spain a prisoner. 

The next two viceroys were men who possessed few qualities 
for that office. There were several trials for treason as a result 
of the previous outbreak, which increased the discontent, and 
the revolutionary element increased in numbers. The first 
phase of the Mexican revolution began in 1810 and continued 
for ten years. These first ten years were characterized by 
Indian revolts, which were badly organized and accomplished 
very little fqr the cause of independence. A revolution broke 
out in 1810 to the north of Mexico City, in Queretaro and 
TSl^st Phase of Guanajuato. The leaders of this revolt were 
the Mexican Miguel Hidalgo, a native priest, and AUende, 

Revolution. 1810-1820 ^ captain of cavalry. Their forces were 
largely made up of Indians, badly organized and poorly armed. 
On September 28, 1810, they attacked the town of Guanajuato, 
which was defended by the intendent. After bloody hand-to- 
hand fighting the rebels took the fortress. Hidalgo now pro- 
ceeded toward Mexico City, fighting as he went. Learning 
that a large force was coming against him from San Luis 
Potosi, he decided it was best to retreat to the district from 
which his support was derived. This retreat led to desertions, 
so that when he was attacked by the royalist forces at Celaya 
the insurgents were routed. Hidalgo now reorganized his 
forces once more and, proceeding to Guadalajara, set up a 
form of government. The insurgents were now in possession 
of territory stretching from sea to sea, and including the present 
states of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi. 

In the beginning of the year 1811 Hidalgo moved out of 
Guadalajara with his entire force, which consisted of 60,000 



170 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

infantry, 20,000 cavalry, and 100 cannon. The royalist forces 
were much smaller, numbering not more than 6,000 all told, 
but they were well disciplined, and under a 
S:cuJrS mdX ^'^i^f^l commander. On January 21 a battle 
was fought near the city of Guadalajara, 
which resulted in the complete victory of the royalists. Hi- 
dalgo fled, turning over the command of the army to Allende. 
The defeat of the patriot forces was a serious blow to the cause. 
Town after town now yielded to the victors, while the leaders 
attempted to escape to the United States. They were soon 
captured and the judgment of death upon Hidalgo and Allende 
followed. 

The revolution, however, was not yet entirely overthrown. 
In the southern provinces a small body of insurgents remained 
under arms under the leadership of another native priest, Jose 
Maria Morelos. For two years this energetic leader kept life 
in the movement, winning some victories and capturing some 
towns, taking Acapulco in 1813. In the early part of 1814 the 
insurgent forces appeared before the capital of the province of 
Michoacan, where they were met by a force 
Morelos. Execution of royalists undcr Iturbide and defeated. The 
of Morelos. Decern- patriots Were maintaining a form of govern- 
ment, under a Congress, and so numerous 
were the adherents that in 1814 the viceroy appealed to the 
home government for a reenforcement of eight thousand men. 
The patriot forces now suffered disaster after disaster. In 
the latter part of 1815 Morelos was captured, and soon after 
met the same fate as his fellow patriot, Hidalgo. During 1816 
the war continued mthout any result on either side, and 
in the fall a new viceroy came out to succeed Calleja. The 
new viceroy adopted a policy of conciliation, which, combined 
with skill and energy, caused the surrender of the leading rebel 
officers in January, 1817. With this the first phase of the 
Mexican revolution closed. 

In 1820 a revolution broke out in Spain, the object of which 
was to compel Ferdinand VII to accept the constitution which 
had been adopted in Spain in 1812. This constitution pro- 
vided for a liberal form of government. The promulgation of 



5 O N O R A^ 



MOVEMENTS 

FOR 

INDEPENDENCE 

MEXICO 

Campaigns of 
Hidalgo and 

Campaigns" of 



'CHIHUAHUA 



ICOAMUILAj 



't- \ DURf^NGO 



< 



.cy- 



^.^ 



p^^ 



:t?^'^S 



< ^ °JAt 



-^\0M-» 



M5rtl'» ^ J"'-*"i§ 



fniCHOAC/H;,, 



-< A 



C A, 



1^'"''P-1S 



THE INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO 171 

this constitution in Mexico had a very different effect from what 
was anticipated. On the one hand it revived the spirit of inde- 
pendence which had been smouldering since the overthrow of 
the former revolutionary movement; on the other hand, the 
effect upon the European-born Spaniards and high church 
officials was quite different. These classes, composing the 
conservative party, opposed the constitution, fearing it would 

curtail their privileges. Although he had 
Revolution'^* ^^ taken an oath to support the constitution, 

Apodaca, the viceroy, secretly favored the 
opposition, and plans were now laid by the conservatives to 
declare the independence of Mexico from a liberal Spain. 
The church favored this movement, fearing that a liberal 
government would force on them disendowment, toleration, 
and other radical reforms. Agustin de Iturbide was induced 
to become the commander of the forces of the conservatives. 
Iturbide, however, seems to have had far different intentions 
from those held by the European-born Spaniards. He now 
conceived the idea of uniting the conservative and Creole 

forces and of proclaiming the independence of 
The Plan of iguaia Mexico. It was at the town of Iguala, near 

Acapulco, that he proclaimed this project, 
on February 24, 1821. For this reason it has become known 
as the "Plan of Iguala." It declared that Mexico should be an 
independent nation, with a constitutional monarchy headed by 
a Bourbon prince, and the Catholic faith as its form of religion. 
The next move was the deposition of the viceroy and the ap- 
pointment of a miUtary officer in his place, who, however, had 
but little authority. The survivors of the early movements 
now flocked to the standard of Iturbide, and by July, 1821, 
the whole country recognized his authority. 
MeriM*^^°*^*'*"^* °* -^* *^^^ juncture a new viceroy, O'Donoju, 

came out from Spain. An interview was 
arranged between him and Iturbide at Cordoba, and there the 
viceroy was persuaded to accept the plan of Iguala to put a 
Bourbon upon the throne of Mexico. On September 27, 1821, 
the capital was entered by the insurgent army without blood- 
shed, the independence of Mexico having been declared. 



172 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Provision was now made for the assembling of a Congress, 
which came together on February 24, 1822. When Congress 
met three parties were found among its members : the Bourbon- 
ists, who favored the plan of Iguala; the Republicans, who 
favored the establishment of a federal republic; and the Itur- 
bidites, who desired to put Iturbide upon the throne. In the 
meantime it was learned that the government 
Emperor ^^^'^*^** ^^ Spain refused to recognize the independ- 

ence of Mexico, and thus there was no chance 
to place a Bourbon upon the throne. The only two parties left 
were the Republican and the party of Iturbide. Finally, on 
May 18, Iturbide was elected emperor under the title of Agus- 
tin the First. The ratification of this action was soon given 
by the provinces and the new reign started most favorably. 
Iturbide, however, assumed all the airs of an hereditary mon- 
arch; a struggle for power between the emperor and Congress 
immediately began, which finally ended with the emperor's 
overthrow. 

Iturbide exerted his authority with a high hand and pro- 
ceeded to imprison the leading members of Congress, finally 
proclaiming its dissolution. A Junta was appointed in its 
place, nominated by the emperor. This action led to the 
breaking out of revolts in the northern provinces in November, 
which, however, were readily suppressed. The next month 
saw another more serious revolt, led by a young general, Santa 
Overthrow of Iturbide ^nua, who was soou joined by a number of 
the old Republican leaders. Immediately the 
whole population flocked to the Republican standard and Itur- 
bide found himself practically deserted. This led him to abdi- 
cate on March 19, 1823, promising at the same time to leave 
the country, not, however, until he had been assured an allow- 
ance of $25,000 annually. In May he embarked for Italy. He 
remained in Europe only a year, returning in disguise in July, 
1824. On learning of his intention to return, Congress had 
passed a law outlawing him, and he had no sooner landed than 
he was seized and almost immediately shot. With the adop- 
tion of a new constitution in October, 1824, the RepubUc of 
Mexico was created. 



THE INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO 173 

The independence of Central America was accomplished 
without the shedding of blood, as there were no Spanish troops 
stationed there. Central America was a neglected part of the 
Spanish colonial empire, and in the latter part of its colonial 
history was governed by a captain-general, whose seat of 
government was in Guatemala. It was not until both Co- 
lombia to the south and Mexico on the north 
ind^n^ce*^ had achieved their independence that the 

people of Central America took any steps 
toward asserting their own independence. In September, 1821, 
Guatemala declared herself free, to be followed soon afterward 
by San Salvador and Honduras. The Spanish officials could 
make no resistance to these declarations. They fled to Cuba 
and from thence to Spain. During the brief reign of Iturbide 
Central America was annexed to Mexico, though there was 
some resistance to this plan. When, however, a republic was 
proclaimed in Mexico in 1824, the Central American states 
withdrew from the confederation and drove out the Mexican 
officials. A federation of the Central American States was 
then formed, modeled after the government of the United 
States. 

In winning their independence the Latin-American states 
had received encouragement and help from both England and 
the United States. In the early years of the struggle England, 
by her naval victories over the French and the Spanish, made 
it impossible for aid to be sent to the Spanish royalist officials 
in South and Central America. At the close of the Napoleonic 
wars England and Spain entered into a treaty, 

The Relation of Eng- _ , ® . . ^ ^ . , . 

land to the Spanish- England proHusmg to prevent her subjects 
American Wars for from Supplying the insurgcnts in America 
with war supplies. In spite of this treaty, 
however, Enghshmen continued to give active aid to the 
Spanish rebels. Soldiers were openly enlisted in London, 
ships were chartered for South American service and loaded 
with supplies at British ports, and as we have already seen, 
more than one battle was decided in favor of the patriots by 
the participation of British legions and British sailors. In 
1817, when Ferdinand of Spain proposed that the allied powers 



174 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

of Europe assist Spain in reducing her rebellious colonists to 
submission, England's attitude defeated the nefarious proposi- 
tion. It was England's desire for South American trade, 
coupled with her love for liberty and popular government, 
which accounts for her action. 

As early as 1817 the United States sent commissioners to 
South America, and in 1822 recognized the independence of 
Colombia, Chile, Buenos Ajrres, and Mexico. In the summer 
of 1823 a French army had invaded Spain to put down the 
rebellion there and the European allies were considering meas- 
ures for the settlement of Spain's colonial difficulties. Great 
Britain had already intimated to the European states that she 
considered the separation of the colonies from Spain as ac- 
complished, though she had not as yet recognized their inde- 
pendence. Canning, the British foreign minister, sought the 
cooperation of the United States in formulating a South Amer- 
ican policy, but as Great Britain refused immediate recognition 

for the Latin-American states, the United 
to^/MoXJcoctrile States proceeded to formulate its own policy. 

While both the United States and England 
were friends to liberal government, yet there was considerable 
rivalry between them, because England feared the United 
States would obtain a supremacy in South American affairs. 
England notified the allied powers that she would oppose any 
step on their part looking toward intervention in American 
affairs, and since England controlled the sea, her protest was 
very important. This was done in October, 1823, while in 
December of that year President Monroe sent his famous mes- 
sage to the American Congress. In that message he stated 
that the United States would consider any attempt on the 
part of the absolute monarchies of Europe "to extend their 
system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our 
peace and safety." He further stated that the United States 
could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing 
the South American States, or "controlling in any manner 
their destiny, by any European power, in any other light than 
as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the 
United States." 



THE INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO 175 

This, with the protest already made by England, was suffi- 
cient to keep the European powers from carrying out their 
intention of interfering with the South American revolutions. 
In spite of these protests on the part of England and America, 
and the recognition of the independence of Buenos Ayres, 
Colombia, and Mexico by England, Spain kept up the pre- 
tense of carrying on the wars in America imtil 1830. In that 
year the papal court opened up relations with the South Amer- 
ican countries, which was an important concession, and in the 
course of the next twenty-five years Spain recognized the 
independence of each of her one-time colonies. 

READING REFERENCES 
In addition to the references cited at the close of the preceding chapter, 
the following may be added: Memoirs of the Mexican Revolution, by Robin- 
son; History of Mexico, by H. H. Bancroft, Vol. Ill, for Mexico; for Brazil, 
History of Brazil, from 1808-1831, 2 vols., by John Armitage, will be 
found useful, as will also South American Republics, by Thomas C. Daw- 
son, Vol. I; for Central America, History of European Colonization, by 
E. J. Pajme. A recent book dealing with the part taken by the English 
in Latin American independence is British Exploits in South America, by 
W. H. Koebel (1917). 



CHAPTER XV 

THE BACKWARD STATES AND THE MILITARY 
DICTATORS 

In all of the Latin American states during the first period of 
independence ignorant soldiers were at the head of the gov- 
ernments. The lieutenants of Bolivar ruled in the north and 
northwestern states, while other rulers, equally inefficient, ruled 
in Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, and Mexico. During the early 
years of independence Latin America has little history worth 
remembering in detail. A brilliant South American has summed 

up these years as follows: "The political com- 
period^*^"^***^ °* ^''^ ^^y i^ repeated periodically: a revolution, a 

dictator; a program of national restoration, 
followed by another revolution, another dictator, etc." An- 
archy led to dictatorships, and these in turn provoked revolu- 
tions. The north and northwestern states had been united 
both in colonial and revolutionary times, but became divided 
into several separate states, largely at the behest of the military 
dictators. All of the states estabhshed liberal constitutions, 
modeled after the French or the United States, but these con- 
stitutions were powerless to produce actual republican gov- 
ernments, in opposition to the military dictators. 

After the liberation of South America from Spanish rule 
Bolivar devoted the remainder of his life to unite Venezuela, 
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and BoUvia into a great republic. 
In 1824 he was in Peru, where he received a message from the 
Colombian Congress informing him that on account of his 
absence he could no longer be recognized as the president of 
Colombia. He continued, however, in Peru, forming upper 
Peru, or Bolivia, into a republic, naming Sucre as president. 
In 1825 he returned to Lima, where he was received with great 
enthusiasm. Here he devoted himseK to the assembling of a 
Pan-American Congress, to meet at Panama, and invited dele- 
gates from Peru, Chile, Mexico, and Buenos Ayres to attend. 

176 



THE BACKWARD STATES 177 

The inefficiency of the government of the states to the north 
jBnally induced him to return thither, and he 
Kmci^Bou^"* left Lima in November, 1826. On his re- 
turn to Bogota he was again proclaimed sole 
ruler, but his scheme for a greater Colombia failed. The rulers 
he left in Peru and Bolivia were overthrown soon after his 
departure, while in 1829 the towns in Venezuela one after 
another declared their separation from Colombia. In 1830 
Ecuador also withdrew and another independent republic was 
established. Bolivar now proposed that a Bourbon prince be 
crowned ruler at Bogota, as a last effort to unite the several 
states, but this likewise came to naught. In 1830 Bolivar 
resigned his authority and retired to Cartagenia, from whence 
he expected to sail for Europe. Before, however, he could get 
away he was seized with consumption and died, still a young 
man of forty-seven. 

Bolivar is considered by the South Americans as the greatest 
of the American hberators. They think of him much as we 
think of Washington, though he was a very different man from 
our Washington. In his ambitions he was nearer like Napoleon. 
He was indifferent to money, but craved power. Like Napo- 
leon, he won the devotion of the people and was the only one 
of the revolutionary leaders who succeeded in gathering about 
him a group of able lieutenants, devoted to himself and to the 
work of winning independence. In many respects he was of 
An Estimate of Statesmanship proportions, though his great- 

^°^^^* est dream, the creation of a great South 

American confederation, was never realized. He had some 
personal quahties which do not attract North Americans to 
him. He was on many occasions bloodthirsty and cruel, 
but he was also generous and brave. He was impetuous and 
sensual, living during his later years with a concubine. 
Although he was a disciple of Rousseau, and believed in the 
sovereignty of the people, yet in order to bring about order he 
was willing to create a monarchy. On his deathbed he wrote: 
"I blush to admit it, but independence is the only benefit we 
have achieved, and that has been at the cost of all others. 
Our constitutions are books, our laws papers, our elections 



178 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

combats, and life itself a torment. We shall arrive at such a 
state that no foreign nation will condescend to conquer us, and 
we shall be governed by petty tyrants." Thus did the great 
liberator clearly foresee the nature of the first decade of South 
American independence. 

Venezuela 

The period of the military dictators in Venezuela lasted 
almost down to our own day. At the death of Bolivar all 
thought of reunion with Colombia came to an end and Vene- 
zuela began her independent career. Her separation was largely 
due to the ambitions of Paez, who had been a lieutenant of 
Bolivar. Paez became the first president in 1830, and remained 
the dominating figure in Venezuela for twenty years. He had 
come into prominence as the leader of horsemen of the plains 
^ during the revolution, and was himself a 

{/^^ ' half-breed Indian. After the death of Boli- 

var, Venezuela began to pay honor to the great liberator, and 
in 1842 his body was removed to Caracas, his native city, 
where it was placed in the Temple of San Francisco. Paez 
was driven from the country in 1849 by General Jose Monagas, 
who had been nominated by Paez in 1847 for the presidency. 
For ten years Monagas was supreme, and during these years a 
number of unportant reforms were brought about, one being 
the abolition of the death penalty for political offenses, and 
another the abolition of slavery. Both Paez and Monagas 
represented the conservative party and ruled as practical dic- 
tators, but as early as 1840 a liberal reaction began which 
finally resulted in the overthrow of the constitution of 
1830. 

Until 1850 Venezuela had been a centralized republic, but 
in that year a revolution broke out, headed by General Falcon 
and Guzman-Bianco, which finally succeeded, after four years 
of war, in overthrowing the centralized government. A federal 
republic was then established. In 1870 Guzman-Bianco, the 
son of a former leader of the liberal party, came into power, 
and he dominated affairs for another twenty years. Blanco 
has been termed a beneficent despot, for during his adminis- 



THE BACKWARD STATES 179 

tration Venezuela experienced a period of orderly government 
and material progress, such as she had not 
^To^spf'^'^'*' previously had. He fostered education, re- 

formed the civil and penal codes, established 
civil marriage, and furthered the building of highways and rail- 
roads. The army was reformed, credit was restored, and at 
the end of his first administration, in 1877, the country was at 
peace and prosperity was everywhere manifest. In 1878 he 
came back to power through a revolution, and ruled as dic- 
tator until his overthrow in 1889. He occasionally permitted 
someone else to be president, though he always found pretext 
for intervention. The governors of the states were his tools, 
and he took care that the members of Congress should be men 
who would do his bidding. 

Guzman-Bianco was overthrown in 1889 by a revolt headed 
by Rojas Paul, while Paul, in turn, was overthrown by An- 
dueza, and he by Crespo, and Crespo by Andrada. In 1899 
the most notorious of the recent rulers of Venezuela came into 
power in the person of Castro, who remained 
dictator until 1908. His administration has 
particular interest for the United States, because of the diplo- 
matic troubles which grew out of the claims of Great Britain, 
Italy, and Germany. This dispute led to President Roosevelt's 
threat to enforce the Monroe Doctrine against Germany, even 
at the expense of sending down American battleships. 

Venezuela has not yet gone beyond the period of the military 
dictators, and in many respects is one of the most backward of 
the South American states. The latter dictators, especially Cas- 
tro, plimdered the country, and have done little to improve the 
material conditions, 

Colombia 

In the year following the death of Bolivar the Republic of 
New Granada was founded, both Ecuador and Venezuela 
having already withdrawn from the confederation, which had 
been estabhshed by the great liberator. A constitution was 
formulated in 1832 and General Santander 
became the first president. At the conclu- 
sion of the administration of Santander, in 1836, an absolute 



180 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

oligarchy was established in which the clergy were given 
large influence. In 1841 the Jesuits were restored and the 
Liberal clauses of the constitution were disregarded. For the 
first twenty years of Colombian independence the Conserva- 
tive party was in power, and during this period the work of 
organization was performed. 

Following the period of conservative control came a liberal 
government. A new constitution was formed in 1853, in which 
the liberty of the press, and suffrage, as well as the separation 
of the church and state, were guaranteed. Following the adop- 
tion of this constitution the Jesuits were expelled, slavery abol- 
ished, and other reforms accompUshed. The two names most 
conspicuous in the history of Colombia during the last half of 
the nineteenth century are General Mosquera, who was pres- 
ident three times from 1845 to 1867, and Rafael Nunez, Hke- 
Mosquera, 1845-1867; ^ise president for three terms, from 1880 to 
Rafael Nunez, 1895. Mosqucra was instrumental in bring- 

1880-1895 jjjg about considerable material progress. In 

his administrations railroads were constructed, steam navigation 
commenced on the Magdalena, the finances were organized, 
while adequate provision was made for the national debt, and 
the prestige of the country greatly improved. He, however, 
was a dictator and made little pretense at observing the con- 
stitutional limitations. Nunez at one time had been secretary 
to Mosquera and had served his country both as president of 
the Senate and in the diplomatic service. He became president 
in 1880. In 1886, after a period of revolution, a new constitu- 
tion was proclaimed which abolished the Federal Republic, 
the states became departments, and the president appointed 
the governors. This has been the last change in the consti- 
tution. 

Colombia has had twenty-seven civil wars, which have cost 
thirty-seven million pesos (gold). The civil wars in Colombia 
have been fought for principle perhaps more than those of the 
other repubUcs. Calderon thus characterizes 
RevoTu^'i Colombia's pohtical history: "In Colombia 

exalted convictions are the motives of politi- 
cal enmities; men abandon fortune and family, as in the great 



THE BACKWARD STATES 181 

religious periods of history, to hasten the defense of a principle. 
These hidalgoes waste the country and fall nobly, with the 
Semitic ardor of Spanish crusaders. . . . Colombia perishes, 
but the truth is saved." 

In 1899 a series of revolutionary movements began which 
continued until 1903. This movement was fathered by the 
Liberal party, which was desirous of wresting the power from 
the conservatives, who had been in control more or less con- 
stantly since 1867. Fighting went on with great fierceness, 
the government troops generally winning the battles. On 

several occasions foreign troops had to be 
^-^^r**"""* landed to protect foreign interests, as was 

the case at Colon and Panama, to protect 
the operations of the Panama Railroad. On the final over- 
throw of the revolutionists, the country was in a deplorable 
condition. Tens of thousands of fives had been destroyed, as 
well as property and trade. In many towns and villages prac- 
tically the entire male population was wiped out. This revolu- 
tion has a particular bearing upon the United States, because 
it was during its progress that the United States was nego- 
tiating with Colombia for the Panama Canal Zone. 

Following the Panama negotiations, General Reyes, who had 
gained distinction as the special envoy of Colombia to the 
United States to protest against the recognition of Panama, 
became the president. He found the country in an exhausted 

condition, and determined to bring about re- 
rf R^fdRe^f °° ^o™^ ^y mtroducmg the methods and policy 

of General Diaz, the Mexican dictator. Ac- 
cordingly, an assembly was called to revise the constitution, 
the term of the presidency was lengthened to ten years, with 
no restrictions as to reelection, and Reyes became the dictator 
of Colombia. As a whole, this seems to be a solution, for a time 
at least, of some of Colombia's problems. But Colombia, like 
Venezuela, has never gotten beyond the dictator stage in her 

political development. 

Ecuador 

Ecuador began her independent career as a province of 
Greater Colombia after the battle of Pichincha, and this was 



182 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

her status until 1830, when the Republic of Ecuador was 
founded by General Juan Jose Flores, a lieutenant of Bolivar. 
For fifteen years Flores governed the country, though they 
were years of rebellion and turbulence. He was elected pres- 
ident three times, in 1831, 1839, and in 1843. Rocafuerte, the 
leader of the Liberal party, formed an alliance with Flores, 
and they divided the public functions be- 

Ecuador, 1830-1860 -n £ ± n .t 

tween them. Rocaiuerte was an excellent 
administrator and did something toward organizing schools, 
and carried through other useful reforms. Flores, however, 
was a tyrant who cared nothing for the country except as it 
gave him authority. He was not an Ecuadorian, though he 
married a wife from Quito. In 1845 a liberal revolution broke 
out which was successful in defeating Flores, who on his defeat 
consented to take $20,000 and a pension and leave the country. 
The radicals, under the leadership of Urbina, now tried to form 
a government, and after promulgating two new constitutions — 
making six in twenty-two years — ^they were overthrown by 
Garcia-Moreno, the leader of the Conservative party. 

The influence of Moreno in Ecuador lasted until his assassi- 
nation in 1875. He was an advocate of strong government, and 
in the matter of religion and education was a reactionary. . His 
first term ended in 1865, when he was succeeded by three weak 
presidents. In 1870 he was again elected president for a term 
of six years, but his assassination in 1875 ended his career. 
Morena was a devout Cathofic and did everything in his power 
to restore the church. Indeed, his administrations may be 
termed clerical dictatorships. All other sects except the Cath- 
ofic were excluded, while the priests and 

Ecuador Since 1850 , . , , , , . " . . 

bishops were to have complete supervision 
over the schools, colleges, and universities. On the overthrow 
of Moreno the political history of Ecuador continued on its 
revolutionary way. The Conservative party was overthrown 
in 1877 and the Liberal party succeeded to power, only to be 
overthrown by another revolution in 1883. The last of the 
dictators of Ecuador was General Alfaro, who overthrew the 
elected president in 1895 and estabfished himself in power. 
He inaugurated a stern anti-clerical policy, which was carried 



J-^ 



THE BACKWARD STATES 183 

to great length by General Plaza, his successor. Civil mar- 
riage and divorce were introduced, and all religions were placed 
on the same footing before the law, while another measure 
declared all church property to be national and to' be rented 
to the highest bidder. These measures led to another revolu- 
tion (1905), which was put down by Alfaro, who made himself 
dictator. ^ ^j cn /.i^ , 

Paraguay Ji^v*^' * 

The fourth South American state which may be designated 
as a dictatorship is Paraguay. Paraguay declared its inde- 
pendence in 1811 and became a despotism from the beginning 
of its independence. Dr. Francia was the first dictator who 
* succeeded in freeing the country not only from Spain but also 
from Buenos Ayres. " At first the government was in the hands 

of two consuls, one of whom was Francia, 
Paraguayan Dictators, but, like Napolcou, Francia soon obtained 
Francia and the Two supreme powcr. Fraucia ruled until 1840, 

the longest dictatorship in South American 
history. He was succeeded by Carlos Lopez, who ruled until 
1860, when he in turn was succeeded by his son, Francisco 
Lopez. Under the latter a war broke out between Brazil, Ar- 
gentina, and Uruguay, as allies, against Paraguay. The war 
lasted from 1864 to 1870, when it came to a close through the 
death of Lopez. Every male capable of bearing arms was 
forced to fight, and whole regiments were formed of mere boys 
twelve to fifteen years old. Women were used as beasts of 
burden, and when worn out were left by the roadside to die 
or were killed. The war nearly depopulated the country, the 
population at the beginning of the war being 1,337,439, while 
at its close there were but 28,746 men and 106,254 women. 

The war left Paraguay prostrate with a large debt. Since 
the war Paraguay has been ruled by presidents under a con- 
stitution, but the form of government is still that of a dictator- 
ship, rather than a republic. There have been four or five 
revolutions and civil wars, but none have been serious. The 
most important events in the history of Paraguay since 1870 
have been the completion of Paraguay Central Railroad in 
1906 and financial and commercial reforms. 



184 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Peru 

For more than a year after the overthrow of Spanish power 

in Peru, Bolivar was dictator, but in September, 1826, he was 

simmioned to Colombia, and was followed by all the Colombian 

troops. On the departure of Bolivar, General Jose de Lamar, 

the commander of the Peruvian troops at 
Dktators7S.i844 Ayacucho, was elected president, only to be 

deposed in 1829, after a war with Colombia. 
From 1827 to 1844 Peru was in the grip of the officers who 
commanded at Ayacucho, three of these generals in turn seizing 
the supreme power. During this period there were three con- 
stitutions. Santa Cruz, the president of Bolivia, succeeded in 
uniting Peru and BoUvia for a time (1836-1844), when the 
confederation was broken largely through the influence of 
Chile. 

The two names which deserve to be remembered in Peruvian 
history from 1840 to 1880 are General Ramon Castilla (1845- 
1862) and Manuel Pardo (1872-1876). After a period of civil 
war Castilla restored order, and his administration marks the 
beginning of a new period of stable administration. The guano 
and saltpeter deposits were opened up, which transformed the 
commercial and financial life of the country. Telegraph lines 

and the first Peruvian railroad were built, 
(1845-1852) and while the financial administration was put on 

Manuel Pardo (1872- ^ firm basis. Peru made progress under 
"^^^^ President Balta (1863-1872), who continued 

the building of public works and railroads to such an extent 
that the country became bankrupt. In 1872 Manuel Pardo, 
an enlightened statesman, became president, and by his wise 
administration did much for the country, though he could not 
save it from bankruptcy. He completely reformed the pubhc 
service, improved educational conditions, reestablished the na- 
tional guard, and sought to build up a strong alliance with 
Argentina and Bolivia. Altogether, he deserves to be ranked 
as one of the great South American leaders since independence. 
The greatest disaster which has come to Peru since her inde- 
pendence was the war with Chile, which occurred during the 
years 1879 to 1882. The pretext of the war was a treaty be- 



THE BACKWARD STATES 185 

tween Peru and Bolivia, which Chile claimed was directly 
aimed at her. The real cause, however, was the desire of 
Chile for the rich guano and nitrate deposits. The military- 
operations were all disastrous to Peru, and 
Wm, 1879^883"^^^ after three serious defeats, in 1880 and 1881, 
- -■=^=^^=^''" the Chilean army entered Lima, which they 

continued to hold until 1883. The government of Peru was 
overthrown and it was only with the help of the Chilean au- 
thorities that a government was finally organized, and a treaty 
of peace signed, in October, 1883. The principal provisions of 
the treaty were the absolute cession by Peru of the province 
of Tarapaca, and the occupation for a period of ten years of 
the territories of Tacna and Arcia, at the end of which time 
the final ownership of the territories was to be determined by 
a popular vote of the inhabitants. In addition, the country 
retaining possession of the territories was to pay to the other 
the sum of about $5,000,000. 

For ten years following the war with Chile the government 
was largely directed by General Caceres, who had been the 
commander-in-chief of the Peruvian forces. During this period 
he was elected to the presidency twice, finally being overthrown 
by a revolution in 1895. The two following administrations, 
Pierola (1895-1899) and Romana (1899- 
SSS? ^^ ^" 1903), were peaceful, on the whole, for the 
Peruvians were heartily tired of war and 
revolution, and there were many and serious problems facing 
the country. There has been a boundary dispute between 
Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru over a large tract of uninhabited 
territory in the vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon, 
which was finally settled by referring the disputed question 
to the arbitration of the Spanish crown. 

Peru seems to have passed beyond the stage of the military 
dictator and settled and orderly government has prevailed in 
recent years. Since 1895 a number of important reform meas- 
ures have been passed, among them being a modification of the 
marriage laws and important financial reforms, such as the 
establishment of the gold standard as the basis of the mone- 
tary system. The administration of Pierola was particularly 



186 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

fruitful in bringing about these reform measures, and these 
years have been characterized as the Peruvian Renaissance. 

Bolivia 
(^ Bolivia was the creation of Bolivar, and is named in his 

honor. A congress was assembled in 1826 to consider the 
constitution which had been prepared for the new republic 
by Bolivar. The congress approved it and General Sucre was 
chosen president for life, though he refused to accept for longer 
than two years, and then only on condition that two thousand 
Colombian troops be permitted to remain. Even this pre- 
caution was not successful in establishing Sucre, for the next 
year (1827) he and his forces were driven from the country, 
and in 1828 Santa Cruz became president. 
Santa Crari826^f84s Santa Cruz was a half-breed, and loved dis- 
play and power. He continued to dominate 
Bolivian affairs until 1839, and during this period Bolivia 
enjoyed a more or less stable government. He reorganized 
the army and restored the pubUc credit. In 1836 he united 
Peru with Bolivia and had dreams of ruling the old viceregal 
territories from Lima. Through the interference of Chile, how- 
ever, this dream was shattered, and by the defeat of the forces 
of Santa Cruz, in 1838, by a Chilean army the confederation 
was destroyed. The end of Santa Cruz's influence came in 
1845 when he retired to Europe, though later when he at- 
tempted to return he was opposed by Chile and Peru. 

The policy instituted by Santa Cruz was followed by his 
successors, though on his overthrow a liberal constitution was 
proclaimed, and Negro slavery was abolished. General Balli- 
vian became president in 1840 and continued in power until 
1848, when he was overthrown by a revolution, and General 
Belzu, an ignorant and violent soldier, suc- 
fsSr^ ^'^"'' ceeded in establishing himself as dictator. 
This was a period of anarchy. Foreign 
treaties were disregarded, while guerrilla bands were per- 
mitted to raid the country unhindered, and "rapine, robbery, 
and riot" became almost the normal condition. Belzu finally 
resigned and was followed by his son-in-law, who attempted 



THE BACKWARD STATES 187 

to reform the worst abuses, but with Uttle success. On his 
overthrow General Acha came to the presidency, and at- 
tempted to rule for a period, but the country seemed in hope- 
less confusion. 

The tyrant who ruled Bolivia from 1864 to 1871 was Mel- 
garejo, who made no pretense at governing according to the 
constitution. He in turn was succeeded by General Morelos, 
the successful leader of the revolution which overthrew Mel- 
garejo. In 1876 General Daza became president and ruled 
until the Chilean war, when on the first defeat he was over- 
thrown. In the Chilean-Peruvian war Bo- 

Bolivia and the i> • ,i n i? t) j j.i i.* r 

Chilean-Peruvian War ""^^^ ^as the ally ot Peru and was the chief 
sufferer, for as a result of her defeat she lost 
the seacoast provinces, and since that time has been a land- 
locked nation. Bolivia was occupied by ChUean soldiers, who 
continued in the country until the treaty of peace was signed. 
In the war Bolivia not only lost her seacoast but also her rich 
guano and nitrate fields. 

Since the war Bolivia has enjoyed a period of peace and 
security, and there has been an earnest attempt on the part 
of the government to meet the problems which face the coun- 
try. In 1895 a treaty was made with Chile, and attempts 
have been made to adjust the question of 
the two provinces, Tacna and Arcia, which 
were taken during the Chilean war from Peru. A long- 
standing boundary dispute with Brazil over rubber lands has 
been settled by the cession of a part of the province of Acre 
to Brazil, on Brazil's payment of a cash indemnity of $10,000,- 
000. Bolivia finally has signed an agreement with Chile giving 
to Chile permanent possession of the two seacoast provinces, 
and thus Bolivia has lost all prospect of securing an outlet to 

the sea. 

READING REFERENCES 

For general accounts of the History of the South American Republics 
since independence South American Republics, by Thomas C. Dawson, 
will be found satisfactory. 

History of South America, 1854-1904, by Charles Edmond Akers (1904), 
will be serviceable for the period covered. 

Briefer accounts are Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, Chapter 



188 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

XXI, and Narrative and Critical History of America, by Justin Winsor, 
Vol. VIII. 

A brilliant summing up and an interpretation of Latin American His- 
tory is Laiin America, Its Rise and Progress, by F. Garcia Calderon (1915). 

History of South America, by W. H. Koebel (1913), will also be useful. 

Some books on special states are: Venezuela, by L. V. DaJton (1912); 
Colombia, by P. J. Elder (1913); Ecuador, by C. R. Enock (1914); PeriL, 
by C. R. Enock (1912); Bolivia, by P. WaUe (1914); The CoUmMan and 
Veneztielan Republics, by A. H. Verrill (1910). 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE RISE OF PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 

STATES 

For the purpose of classification we have divided the South 
American States into two classes, the backward and the pro- 
gressive. In the first group we have included Venezuela, Co- 
lombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, while in the 
second group are Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile. This 
classification holds good not only in a political sense but also 
in their economic and industrial development. The states 
were alike in that they all passed through a time of anarchy. 
Classification of the ^he causcs for tWs period of anarchy were 
South American not always the Same, but the events during 

^*^*^^ this period, in each of the states, were more 

or less similar. One of the great underlying causes for the 
revolutions in the western and northwestern states was the 
great variety of races. The half-breeds and the Indians lived 
outside the chief towns and cities, while the! Creoles and other 
pure-blooded whites controlled the centers 9f population, and 
therefore the government. In each republic there always de- 
veloped two parties, the one with liberal doctrines and the 
other conservative, but in most instances principle had little 
part in the struggles, the chief object being simply to gain the 
control of the government. 

Argentina 
The early history of the republic of Argentina is filled with 
trouble and disturbances. On the independence of Argentina 
in 1816 two parties at once came into existence, the one fav- 
orable to strong central government, made up mostly of the 
Early Years of inhabitants of Bueuos Ayres, and the coast 

Argentine independ- district, while the Other party favored a 
ence, 1810-1824 federal government in which the provinces 

were to be granted a large degree of self-government. We 

189 



190 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

have already noted the confusion in the early years of Argen- 
tina independence. The first form of government was the 
Jmita organized in 1810; this was followed by the triumvirate 
in 1813; and this in turn gave place to a Directory in 1819. 
Finally, in 1824, the executive power was vested in a pres- 
ident, and Bernardino Rivadavia was chosen for that ofl&ce. 

Rivadavia was inaugurated on February 7, 1825, and con- 
tinued in office until his resignation in 1827. He represented 
the Centralist party and governed largely in the interest of 
Buenos Ayres and the seaboard, and neglected the provinces. 
During his administration Buenos Ayres engaged in a war 
with Brazil over Uruguay, as a result of 

SlceswiT-1835 ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ save up her claim to Uruguay 
and it became an independent republic. On 
the resignation of Rivadavia he was succeeded by two pres- 
idents representing the Federalist party, and as a result of 
their carrying out the Federalist idea, Argentina was split up 
into a number of independent or quasi-independent provinces, 
while the president had little power outside Buenos Ayres. 
This situation finally led to a civil war out of which came a 
remarkable leader, Juan Manuel de Rosas. Gradually Rosas 
gathered all the power into his own hands and in 1835 became 
dictator. 

The dictatorship of Rosas continued until 1852. He was 
"the creator of Argentina nationality." He stirred up divi- 
sion among the governors of the states, "stimulated their 
mutual hatred," and presided over their quarrels, and finally 
succeeded in building up a strong government. In 1839 a 
revolution was begun, headed by the leader of the Unitarian 
party, but by 1841 the revolt was crushed 
^^'^^^orsmvot Rosas, ^^^ Lavalle, the leader, captured and shot. 
In many ways Rosas was reactionary, and 
attempted to close the rivers to foreign trade. This led to the 
intervention of France and England. Finally, in 1852, Rosas 
was overthrown, largely through the instrumentality of one of 
his former followers, Urquiza. Urquiza succeeded in getting 
the help of both Uruguay and Brazil, and at the head of an 
army of twenty-four thousand Brazilians and Uruguayans he 



PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES 191 

defeated Rosas, who fled into exile on an English ship. Three 
times previously had Urquiza attempted to overthrow the 
tyrant, but each time he had failed, and it was not until out- 
side help was secured that he was at last successful. 

During the rule of Rosas the country had made considerable 
progress. The population of Buenos Ayres had doubled, while 
as many as thirty thousand English, Irish, and Scotch had 
come out to engage in sheep-raising, and had mostly settled in 
Buenos Ayres province. On the overthrow of Rosas the peo- 
ple were heartily sick of war and military rule and were ready 
to accept a government which would permit industry and 
commerce to make headway. Urquiza be- 
1853-18M ° "*'"^' came the director of the confederation, but 
he displayed no desire to play the role of 
Rosas. The governors of the provinces met and agreed to call 
a constitutional convention at Santa Fe, as a precaution 
against the influence of Buenos Ayres. On May 1, 1853, a 
constitution was adopted, copied largely after that of the 
United States, and has continued to be the fundamental law of 
Argentina. Urquiza was elected the first president under this 
new constitution, though Buenos Ayres refused to so recognize 
him. In 1859 Buenos Ayres marched an army to attack the 
federal government, but was defeated by Urquiza. The next 
year (1860) the governor of Buenos Ayres swore to support 
the federal constitution, and by that act entered the con- 
federation. 

This, however, was not to be the end of the struggle between 
Buenos Ayres and the provinces. In 1861 hostilities again 
broke out. This time the provincials were defeated and Gen- 
eral Mitre, the governor of Buenos Aj^es and the commander 
of the Buenos Ayres forces, became the president. In 1865 
Argentina was forced into the war against Paraguay by the 
Administration of ^^ant of Paraguay demanding the right of 

General Mitre, 1862- marcMug across Argentine territory. Lopez 
^^^ had counted upon receiving aid against Mitre 

from Urquiza, but in this he was disappointed, as Urquiza 
refused to revolt against the central government, but in many 
ways gave the president aid. During Mitre's administration 



192 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Argentina began that industrial development which has made 
her in recent years the greatest exporting nation in the world 
in proportion to population. In 1868 Sarmiento was elected 
to the presidency at an election which is said to have been 
"the freest and most peaceful ever held in the republic." 

The contest between the city of Buenos Ajtcs and the prov- 
inces reached a crisis between 1870 and 1880. At each election 
the two parties, one representing the provinces and the other 
the city, put up their candidates, and bitter contests ensued. 
As the election of 1880 drew near it became evident that a 
revolt was imminent. Buenos Ayres had organized military 
companies, the purpose of which was to train all ablebodied 
young men for war. The federal government became alarmed 
General Roca and ^^^ Ordered them to disband. In the mean- 
FederaUzation of time the outlying provinces had organized, 

Buenos Ayres calling thcmselves the Cordoba League. 

Their forces were led by General Roca, an Indian fighter of 
great skill, who was the federal candidate for president. In 
July Roca forced his way into the capital, and the city at once 
submitted. In October, 1880, Roca became president and at once 
took steps to make Buenos Ayres the property of the national 
government, while the provincial capital of Buenos Ayres prov- 
ince was moved to La Plata. This was a most wise step and 
has since proved an important factor in cementing the nation. 

Following the term of President Roca came a weak and in- 
competent president, Celman, during whose administration car- 
pet-baggers from the provinces controlled the government. In 
1890 Celman was overthrown by a revolution headed by the 
best men of the country, and since that time Argentina has 
been blessed by a succession of capable presi- 

Rece^Argentina ^^^^^^ g.^^^ ^ggQ ^j^^^.^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ 

serious boundary disputes, one with Brazil 
and the other with Chile, but fortunately both were settled by 
arbitration. To commemorate the boundary settlement between 
Chile and Argentina the two repubHcs united in the erection 
of the beautiful Christ of the Andes, which stands on the 
boundary line, at the highest point of the Andes pass, between 
the two republics. 



PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES 193 

Chile 

O'Higgins became the head of the first independent govern- 
ment of Chile with the title of director-general. He conducted 
the government without paying much attention to democratic 
usages, and as a consequence became very unpopular and was 
Early Period of Compelled to resign in 1823. From 1823 to 

chUean independ- 1830 there wcrc no less than ten governments, 
ence, i 17-1 30 ^-^j^ three different constitutions. From 1827 

to 1829 there were five revolutions, and the country was in a 
most chaotic condition. "The Chilean people went from lib- 
erty to license, and from license to barbarism." The man 
chiefly responsible for the ending of this disorder was Diego 
Portales, who has been rightly called the founder of the Chilean 
nation. 

The career of Portales was short, but his influence was far- 
reaching. He represented the Conservative party and stood 
for a strong government. He was a practical business man 
and never desired to be president. In 1831 General Prieto, a 
leader of a successful revolution, was elected president, and 
Portales became his chief minister. Guided by this great 
minister, Chile rapidly became an ordered country. He de- 
stroyed the bandits who infested the country, established 
Period of *^^ finances on a stable basis, and organized 

Conservative Power, schools. In 1833 a new Constitution was 
^ ^^"^ ^ adopted, largely the work of Portales, which 

created a strong executive, and gave power into the hands of 
the great landholders. There followed now a period of con- 
servative power in which the people had little to do with the 
government, but as a whole it was a period of advance. In 
1836 Chile became involved in a war with Peru and Bolivia, 
in which Chile was victorious, and added to her territory at 
the expense of BoKvia. This was also a period of industrial 
progress and commercial growth. Steamship lines were estab- 
lished along the coast, while railroads, telegraph lines, and 
wagon roads were constructed. Schools were also built, and 
a national bank established. The three presidents during 
this period were Prieto (1831-1841), Manuel Bulnes (1841- 
1851), and Manuel Montt (1851-1861). 



194 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The period in Chilean history from 1861 to 1891 may be 
termed the period of hberal control. During the closing years 
of the preceding period a strong Liberal party had been grow- 
ing up, favorable to a larger degree of self-government. General 
Montt toward the close of his administration had adopted 
more liberal ideas, and in 1861 Perez became president, to be 
followed in 1871 by Errazuriz, and he in turn in 1876 by Pinto, 
all liberal presidents. While all of these 
Conteoi°i86i-i89i presidents were liberals in their party affilia- 
tions, yet their liberalism did not lessen the 
power of the presidents or change the constitution. Some con- 
stitutional changes were made, however, one forbidding the 
reelection of presidents. During these years Chile continued 
to prosper along all lines. Schools were built, railroads and 
telegraphs were greatly extended, and prosperity along many 
lines had free course. The explanation of the peace and order 
which prevailed in Chile, while the rest of South America was 
strugghng with anarchy, is the fact that Chile adopted a con- 
servative constitution and long-term presidencies. Chilean 
history is largely free from those petty revolutions and civil 
struggles which abound in most of the other South American 
states. 

The most important event in the history of Chile was the 
war with Peru and Bolivia (1879-1883). The combined popu- 
lations of Peru and Bolivia were nearly double that of Chile, 
and besides, the Chilean treasury was empty, and the country 
in a poor condition to begin a war. The immediate cause of 
the war was the treatment of Chilean Nitrate 
IndPem^iTr^-im^ Companies by the Bolivian government, 
which came to a climax in 1879 with the 
seizure of the property of the Chilean Nitrate Company at 
Antofagasta. The first part of the war was indecisive, but 
when the Chilean navy succeeded in destroying the ironclad 
vessels of Peru the war broke in Chile's favor. The fighting 
continued through 1882, but a peace was not signed until 
1884, the provisions of which have already been given. Chile 
changed presidents during the war, General Pinto giving place 
in 1881 to Santa Maria. 



PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES 195 

Under the administration and urging of President Santa 
Maria a number of very important reforms were voted. In 
his message to the Congress in 1883 he urged the passage of a 
law legalizing civil marriage and the registration of births and 
the freeing of cemeteries from Catholic control. It was at this 
time that one of the greatest names in Chilean history came 
into prominence in the person of the prime minister Balma- 
ceda. These liberal laws were pushed through Congress against 
the stubborn opposition of the conservative elements and the 
priesthood. After the passage of the liberal 

Santa Maria and i ,t_ -ij. jr-z^r-j. 

Baimaceda, 1881-1891 ^^"^^ *^^ president and his Cabinet were ex- 
communicated, and every effort was made by 
the Conservative party and the Catholic Church to defeat 
Baimaceda, who now became the candidate of the Liberal 
party for the presidency. This opposition, however, was in 
vain, for Baknaceda was elected in 1886. He planned great 
things for Chile. Now that Chile had the benefit of the nitrate 
fields, her treasury was full, and railroad building, erection of 
public buildings, and the building of ships was the order of the 
day. In the midst of this ambitious program Baimaceda found 
that by 1889 a majority of Congress had become opposed to 
him, and there began to be a strong feeling against the pres- 
ident among the congressmen. This condition went from bad 
to worse until 1891, when a civil war between the president 
and Congress suddenly broke out. 

The crisis was brought about by Baimaceda appointing a 
Cabinet made up of personal friends and refusing to dismiss 
them when Congress passed a vote of censure. Since the days 
of Portales Congress had practically controlled the presidency, 
and Baimaceda now determined to free it from that control. 
Congress refused to pass appropriation bills, and the president 
continued to collect taxes and maintain the public service. 
This was the test which was laid down by Congress, and when 
the president took this position civil war was 
chrti WM^of'^gi" begun. The army remained true to Baima- 
ceda, while the navy fought on the side of 
Congress. The revolutionists seized the nitrate fields, and thus 
had a source of revenue to carry on their operations. The con- 



196 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

gressional sea forces could strike where they pleased and could 
move much faster than the land forces under Bahnaceda. In 
August the revolutionary fleet with their army on board sud- 
denly appeared before Valparaiso; on August 27 the Balma- 
cedists were overthrown, while Bahnaceda was forced to take 
refuge in the Argentine legation, where he remained until 
September 18, the day on which his term of office expired. On 
the morning of this day he took his own life. The civil war 
had cost ten thousand lives and 10,000,000 sterling. The 
leader of the revolt, Admiral Montt, was elected president at 
the close of the war, having been chosen by a real popular 
vote. 

Admiral Montt proved to be a good president, and used 
great tact in dealing with the followers of Bahnaceda. During 
this administration there was trouble between Chile and the 
United States over a sailor's brawl in Valparaiso, which re- 
sulted, after a great deal of excitement, in Chile being com- 
pelled to pay the United States 175,000, 
ffis'S^'^*" which has left bad feelmg against the United 

States. In 1896 Errazuriz became president, 
serving out the term of five years; Riesco, a Liberal, succeeded 
in 1901 and was followed by Pedro Montt in 1906. There are 
two parties in Chile, the Liberal and the Conservative, though 
the Conservatives do not oppose reforms. There have been 
boundary disputes with Argentina, and Argentina has been 
Chile's greatest rival along other lines, but fortunately none 
of these disputes have resulted in war. 

Brazil 
The independence of Brazil was declared in 1822, when the 
son of the Portuguese king was proclaimed emperor as Pedro I. 
The Brazilians were much divided from the first. On the one 
hand they feared absolutism if they supported the empire, 
while on the other they feared anarchy if the empire fell. 
Brazil was also influenced by their neighbors, who were all 
setting up republican governments, and there arose a Republi- 
can party, which was only suppressed with great difficulty. 
There was also difficulty in procuring a constitution, and Brazil 



PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES 197 

almost came to grief, but finally an instrument of government, 
framed by the Council of State, was accepted 
i8m^8^ °* ^^"*'** '' ^y *^® emperor, amidst great rejoicings of 
the people. As a whole the reign of Pedro 
I was one of disaster. The war fought over Uruguay went 
against Brazil, and she was forced, largely through finan- 
cial reasons, to give up all claim to that province. After the 
war the ultra-liberals obtained a majority in the Legislature, 
and this party was hostile to the emperor, and disaffection was 
everywhere manifest. Agitation in favor of a republic was re- 
newed, and when finally the emperor attempted to retain a 
Cabinet favorable to absolutism, public indignation meetings 
were held, which were joined by the troops, and the emperor was 
forced to abdicate in favor of his son, then a child of five years. 
The emperor then embarked upon an English ship for Portugal, 
where he spent the remainder of his life, unfortunate to the end. 
Pedro II, who now became the Brazilian emperor, was but a 
child, and for a period of nine years Brazil was ruled by a 
regency. During this period the form of government was 
practically republican, for the regents were 

Pedro n, 1834-1889 • 1 

chosen by the Legislature. But the govern- 
ment under the regents was not a success. The country was in 
the grip of powerful cabals, and to end this Pedro II was de- 
clared able to rule at the age of fourteen. Pedro II was an 
enlightened and highly educated man, and was much inter- 
ested in the development of his empire. He was extremely 
liberal in his tendencies, and was much interested in the ad- 
vance of education and the economic affairs of the country. 

During the reign of Pedro II Brazil was drawn into two 
wars. The first was with Argentina over the old question of 
Uruguay. In 1849 Rosas, the Argentine dictator, attempted 
to unite Uruguay with Argentina with the result that Brazil 
and Uruguay united their forces under Urquiza, and Rosas was 

overthrown. The other was war with Para- 
with Argentin^, 1849; guay, wMch wc havc already mentioned in 
War with Paraguay, connection with Argentina and Paraguay. 

The dispute between Paraguay and Brazil 
arose over the question of the navigation of the Paraguay 



198 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

River. In 1855 Brazil sent a fleet up the river and an agree- 
ment was finally reached between the two countries. The 
dictator of Paraguay, however, continued to throw every ob- 
stacle in the way of the fulfillment of the agreement. Para- 
guay began the invasion of Brazil. Argentina and Uruguay 
joined forces against the haughty dictator, but so well was 
Paraguay protected that the combined forces of the three 
countries were not able to crush him until 1870. 

Among the accomplishments in the way of reform, during 
the reign of Pedro II, was the abolition of the slave trade. 
This was accomplished in 1853 with the help of Great Britain, 
who had made a treaty with Brazil as early as 1826 looking to 
Aboution of the Slave ^^at end. It was not, however, until 1848 
Trade and Anti- that Sentiment in Brazil was strongly aroused 

Slavery Agitation agaiust the traffic, due to the bringing of 

yellow fever by imported slaves. Along with the agitation 
against the slave trade came other movements. Pedro was 
an abolitionist at heart, and agitation in favor of gradual 
emancipation began as early as 1864. The number of slaves 
was steadily decreasing, and it seemed probable that the insti- 
tution would gradually disappear. In 1856 there were 2,500,- 
000 slaves in Brazil, but by 1873 their number had decreased 
to 1,500,000, and by 1887 there were only 750,000. 

During these years there were two parties in the empire, 
the Liberal and the Conservative, the first standing for election 
and church reforms, and abolition of slavery, while the latter 
opposed all of these issues. The party struggles waxed very 
warm through the seventies and early eighties, and the em- 
peror was harassed beyond measure. By 1887 the agitation in 
favor of emancipation had become too great to be overcome. 
Slaves were fleeing from the plantations, and the police refused 
to aid in their capture. Finally the emperor, 
the Slaves and the sick and failing, had gone to the United 
Overthrow of the States, leaving his daughter Isabel as regent. 

When Congress met in May, 1888, a bill was 
introduced providing for immediate and imcompensated eman- 
cipation. The law passed at once and was signed by the regent. 
The result of the passage of the law was the overthrow of the 



PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES 199 

empire. By favoring the bill the regent had alienated the 
only class favorable to the empire, namely, the slaveholders, 
and now they turned against the empire. Before this had 
happened the army and populace of Rio de Janeiro had be- 
come imbued with republican doctrines. The two men chiefly 
responsible for the overthrow of the empire were General 
Benjamin Constant, a professor in the military school at Rio, 
who had thoroughly imbued the young officers of the army 
with republican ideas, and General Diodoro de Fonseca. On 
November 14, 1888, troops surrounded the government build- 
ings and a republic was declared, and on the sixteenth the 
emperor and his family were placed on board a vessel and 
sent to Portugal. 

The provinces accepted the change in the government with- 
out any disturbance. New governors for the provinces were 
named by telegraph, while the royal officials turned over their 
offices to the new officials. The form of government was at 
first a military dictatorship, which continued for fourteen 
months, when the new constitution was promulgated. It was 
modeled after that of the United States, and provided for 
universal suffrage, separation of church and state, civil mar- 
riage, a humane criminal code, and a reformed judicial system. 

The Congress consisted of two hundred and 
RepubUc ^°*° ^ ^'^^ deputies elected by the states, and a 

Senate composed of three senators from each 
state. This constitution went nominally into effect February 
24, 1891, though the government continued a military dic- 
tatorship for four years, managed by military adventurers and 
unscrupulous politicians. Finally, in 1893, a revolt was begun 
against the military dictatorship, headed by the Brazilian 
navy. The harbor of Rio was blockaded while the president 
Floriano controlled the army. The war lasted until March, 
1894. Floriano, although succeeding in overthrowing the 
revolt, refused reelection and was succeeded by Prudente. 
With this administration the real republican period of Brazil 
begins. 

As a whole the history of Brazil has been one of peace as 
compared to that of the other repubUcs of Latin America. 



200 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

This has been -largely due to the fact that she delayed the 
establishment of a republic until her people had learned, 
through experience, something of self-government. Since 1898 
Brazil has had a succession of capable presidents, and the 
country has made both political and material progress. 

From the standpoint of economic progress Uruguay belongs 
to the progressive states, though politically she should be 
classed with the backward states. Uruguay owes her inde- 
pendence to the fact that she has been since colonial times a 
disputed territory. In a war between Argentina and Brazil, 
in 1816-17, Uruguay was annexed to Brazil and remained a 
province of that country until another war broke out with 
Argentina in 1825, which resulted in declaring Uruguay an 
independent republic. On Argentina declaring war against 
Brazil, in 1825, two Uruguay chiefs, Lavalleja and Rivera, 
joined forces with Argentina. The Brazilian 
u^y^"'"'*^'''^"* forces were soon confined to Montevideo, 
but the war dragged on until 1828, when 
finally, through the intervention of the British minister, both 
Argentina and Brazil gave up their claims to the territory 
and the region was erected into an independent republic. 
Meanwhile the Uruguayan chiefs, Rivera and Lavalleja, con- 
tinued their rivalry. When a constitution was adopted by the 
partisans of Lavalleja, Rivera prepared to make war upon 
him, but this was prevented by the intervention of Brazil and 
Argentina. A compromise was finally reached by which Rivera 
became the first president. 

No sooner was constitutional government established than 
civil wars broke out between the two factions, into which Ar- 
gentina soon entered. Rosas, the Argentine dictator, planned 
to establish the anti-Rivera chief in power in Uruguay and then 
to get his aid in incorporating the country with Argentina. 
These plans were well on the way to accomplishment when 
France and England upset the plans, French and British ves- 
sels blockading the La Plata. At this juncture Urquiza broke 
with Rosas and, joining forces with the Uruguayans, de- 
feated the Argentine dictator and saved Uruguay independ- 
ence. 




STATUE OF EMPEROR DOM PEDRO II 
JOSE BALMACEDA ROSAS 

PORFIRIO DIAZ BENITO JUAREZ 



PROGRESSIVE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES 201 

The history of Uruguay from the overthrow of Rosas to the 
present has been but an endless series of civil wars. During 

the period from 1852 to I860 the leaders of 
Biancos"^"^* the party known as the Colorado occupied 

the presidency, while Flores became the chief 
figure. In 1860 the other party, known as the Blancos, came 
into power, and since that time, even down to the present, 
these two parties have carried on their party conflicts, often 
bringing the country into civil war. 

READING REFERENCES 

Besides the general works already cited, the following books on special 
countries may be added: Argentina, by W. H. Hirst (1910); Urugxiay, by 
W. A. Koebel (1915); Histery of Chile, by H. V. Hancock (1893); Braza, 
by P. Denis (1911). 



CHAPTER XVII 
MEXICO AND THE CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 

The history of Mexico since independence may be con- 
veniently gathered under three names, Santa Anna, Juarez, 
and Diaz. For thirty years after independence the most im- 
portant personage in Mexican history was Santa Anna; follow- 
ing Santa Anna came Juarez, who was the dominant influence 
in Mexico to his death in 1872; and he in turn was followed by 
Diaz, who remained at the head of the Mexican repubHc until 
his overthrow in 1911. From independence 
Santo Anna. Juarez. -^ jg2l to the second election of Diaz to the 
presidency in 1884 Mexico was in a state of 
continuous warfare. At first glance the never-ending conflicts 
seem to be simply the struggle of rival generals for control of 
affairs, but on a closer examination it will appear that the 
underlying cause was a struggle between the privileged classes 
and the mass of the population. It was a struggle also between 
Centralists and Federalists, the former identical with army, 
the church, and the supporters of despotism, while the latter 
represented the desire for repubhcan and local self-government. 

On the deposition of Iturbide, Mexico was proclaimed a 
republic with a constitution modeled after that of the United 
States. Santa Anna, who had led the revolution against the 
empire, now came into prominence and for two generations 
filled Mexico with violence. He has been described as ignorant, 
crafty, and ambitious, a democrat by instinct, but he was 
neither a general, a statesman, nor even an honest man. Mex- 
santa Anna and the i^o was Certainly uuf ortuuate in the type of 
Formation of the leadership which he imposed upon her. From 

Republic of Mexico ^g^Q ^^ ^ggl Santa Anna had been a member 

of the army of Spain. Later he was made governor of the 
province of Vera Cruz, his native province, and it was as 
governor of this province that he led the revolt against Itur- 
bide. Immediately on the formation of the republic two par- 

202 



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 203 

ties arose, one the Federalist and the other the CentraUst, the 
latter being split into the Free Masons and the monarchists. 
The first president under the constitution was Guerrero, the 
last of the revolutionary leaders. His administration was 
filled with troubles and insurrections, as well as foreign com- 
plications, and in 1831 he was deposed and later murdered. 
After a period of turbulence Santa Anna became dictator. As 
dictator he abolished the constitution, suppressed Congress 
and the state Legislatures, and substituted creatures of his 
own. 

In 1836 a new constitution was framed, and the country was 
divided into departments, with governors appointed by the 
central authority. This form of government was no more 
successful than the federal form, and Santa Anna again came 
forward in 1841, another constitution was formed^ and Nicholas 
Bravo became president. On the overthrow of the constitu- 
tion by Santa Anna, in 1835, Texas, now a part of the state of 
Coahuila, revolted. Texas had been largely 
R^oit of Texas * Settled by people from the United States in 
consequence of a land grant which had been 
made to Moses Austin in 1820 by the Spanish authorities. 
The people of Texas had come largely from the cotton-growing 
States of the South and had brought their slaves with them. 
When, therefore. President Guerrero had abolished slavery they 
were much displeased, and when finally Santa Anna became 
dictator the Texans revolted. Fighting continued through 
the fall of 1835 and the winter and spring of 1836. Santa 
Anna commanded the Mexican forces, and was guilty of the 
most barbarous cruelties, slaughtering prisoners at the capture 
of the Alamo in March, 1836, and a few weeks later at Goliad. 
Sam Houston commanded the forces of Texas, and at San 
Jacinto, April 21, 1836, completely defeated Santa Anna, where 
nearly all the Mexican army was killed, wounded, or captured. 
Santa Anna was himself captured the next day. He was finally 
released in 1837, though not until he had signed a treaty rec- 
ognizing the independence of Texas, which on his return to 
Mexico he promptly repudiated. 

Soon after the war with Texas Mexico became involved in a 



204 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

dispute with France over unsettled claims, and the Mexican 
coast was blockaded by French warships. The Mexican gov- 
ernment was forced to surrender, which resulted in a revolt, 
and Santa Anna came forward once more, as was stated above. 
Another dispute over clauns with the United States was settled 
in 1841 by a commission, and when in 1843 a forced loan was 
raised to pay these claims Santa Anna was again overthrown, 
this time being forced to go into exile, going to Habana. Gen- 
eral Herrera now became president, but was soon overthrown 
by General Paredes in 1846, who undertook to resist the claims 
of the United States to disputed territory. 

Meanwhile Mexico and the United States were drifting to- 
ward war. Agitation for the annexation of Texas had been 
carried on by the slaveholders of the South for several years, 
and when this was finally accomplished in the last moment of 
President Tyler's administration, the Mexican minister at 
Washington withdrew. Mexican affairs were in confusion. 
The president was suspected of intriguing to overthrow the 
republic and was compelled to give way to the vice-president, 
and he in turn was forced out of office by the return of Santa 
Anna from exile, who assumed the presidency and the conduct 
of the war, in August, 1846. Santa Anna was allowed to land 
at Vera Cruz by the American squadron, probably thinking 
The War Between *^^* ^^^ presence in Mcxico would divide the 
Mexico and the Mexicans. In the meantime President Polk 

United states ^^^ ordered General Taylor down to the Rio 

Grande, where open hostilities soon resulted. After a series of 
battles in the northern part of Mexico in the autumn of 1848, 
in which the Americans were always victorious, the Washing- 
ton government decided to send an expedition from Vera Cruz 
for the capture of the Mexican capital. General Winfield 
Scott, the commander of the expedition, captured Vera Cruz 
on March 29, 1847, and proceeding toward Mexico City, 
fought the battle of Cerro Gordo on April 17 and 18. Two 
more battles were fought in September near the capital, and 
the Americans occupied the city on September 14, 1847. This 
virtually ende.d the war. 

One of the results of the defeat of the Mexican forces was the 



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 205 

overthrow of Santa Anna, and the new government now formed 
The Treaty of appointed commissJoners to treat for peace. 

Guadalupe Hidalgo, Negotiations continued mitil February, 1848, 
e ruary 2, i 4 when the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was 

signed. It provided for the ceding to the United States of New 
Mexico, Texas, and Upper California in return for a payment 
of $15,000,000 by the United States to Mexico. The United 
States had begun the war for the purpose of adding addi- 
tional territory which might be available for the extension of 
slavery. 

General Herrera once more became president in 1848 and 
remained in office until 1851. The financial situation was des- 
perate and attempts were made to restore public credit. Some 
progress was made through an arrangement with British hold- 
ers of Mexican stock, but the federal revenue was not large 
enough to meet the expenses of the govem- 

Mezico from 1848 to ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ 

Smuggling was commonly carried on, and to 
add to the confusion, Indian revolts broke out in Yucatan and 
Sierra Gorda. Herrera was succeeded by Arista as president 
in 1851, who resigned office in 1853. After a short period Santa 
Anna was once more recalled to power and was made dictator, 
and in December assumed the title of "Serene Highness." 
This action on the part of Santa Anna aroused revolt, demand- 
ing the deposition of the dictator and the formation of a new 
government. Among the leaders in this movement were Gen- 
erals Alvarez and Comonfort, and working with them were 
two other men, destined to play a large part in the future 
history of Mexico, Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz. The 
revolt soon spread throughout the country and Santa Anna 
was forced to flee in August, 1854. 

Alvarez became president in 1855, and General Comonfort 
became minister of war, while Juarez became minister of 
finance. Juarez is one of the most remarkable men Mexico has 
produced. Bom in a village of Oaxaca in 1806, of unmixed 
Indian parentage, he studied for the priesthood, later studied 
law, taught physics in a local college, and finally, going into 
politics, became governor of his native state in 1847. Juarez 



206 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

stood for liberal government, and among the things accom- 
plished in the beginning of his administration as minister of 
finance was the enactment of a law subjecting the clergy to the 
jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. One of 
Mexico from 1854 to ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ Mcxico has always been "benefit 

of clergy." Alvarez soon gave way to Com- 
onfort, while Comonfort was overthrown by a reactionary 
party under the leadership of Zuloaga, and he in turn was soon 
followed by Pezuela, and Pezuela by a young and unscrupulous 
soldier, Miguel Miramon. Juarez became the leader of the 
Federalist party, but was unable to get possession of the cap- 
ital, being twice defeated outside the city. Two rival govern- 
ments were now set up, one at Vera Cruz imder Juarez, who 
was recognized by the United States and permitted to draw 
supplies, while the reactionary government was established at 
the capital. A situation now prevailed in Mexico similar to 
that of 1913. Outrages were continually cormnitted by both 
parties against foreigners and there were strong reasons for 
foreign intervention. Early in 1859 President Buchanan rec-? 
ommended to Congress that the United States intervene, but 
Congress failed to respond. In December of 1859 the M'Clean- 
Juarez treaty was signed giving the United States a sort of 
disguised protectorate over Mexico, but it failed of ratification 
by the United States Senate. 

The crisis in Mexican affairs came in 1860, when Miramon, 
under the plea of necessity, seized $630,000 which had been 
left under seal at the British legation for English bondholders. 
The following month Miramon's government was overthrown 
by the forces of Juarez, and Juarez entered the capital in 
January, 1861. Juarez, however, did nothing to satisfy the 
claims of the European states, and outrages on the persons 
and property of foreigners continued. Finally, in October, 
1861, an agreement was reached between Great Britain, France, 

and Spain to take steps to intervene in Mex- 
irTMerfco, iseT'^ °° ^^^' Both England and Spain had legitimate 

claims, but the French claims were based 
upon the claims of Jecker, a Swiss banker who had loaned 
Miramon $750,000, which Miramon secured by handing ovep 



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 207 

$15,000,000 worth of bonds, Jecker failed and soon afterward 
Miramon was overthrown. Most of Jecker's creditors were 
French, and Napoleon III naturalized Jecker by imperial 
decree, while Jecker had won over certain influential French- 
men, by corrupt means, to support his claims. Vera Cruz was 
occupied by Spanish troops in December, 1861, while Great 
Britain landed seven hundred marines. France, however, sent 
over a large fleet, and proceeded to seize the Gulf ports. It 
soon became evident to both Spain and England that France 
was prepared to go beyond the agreement, and they accord- 
ingly withdrew their forces in March, 1862. 

France now sent thirty thousand troops and proceeded to 
conquer the country. Puebla was captured after a siege, on 
February 17, 1863, and Mexico City fell on June 7. At this 
juncture a provisional government, nominated by the French 
minister, was formed, which proceeded to declare for monarchy, 
and offered the crown to Maximilian, the 
Maximilian's Empire brother of the emperor of Austria. A year 
later Maximilian arrived, bringing with him 
all the etiquette belonging to European courts. More lin- 
popular even than Maximilian with the Mexican people were 
the troops which were brought from Europe to form the nu- 
cleus of his army. Juarez continued his government in the 
north, while Diaz led a revolt in the southwest. The coimtry 
was torn by guerilla warfare. Republican bands sprang up all 
over the country. Maximilian issued a decree in October, 1865, 
stating that Mexican guerillas when captured would be tried 
by court martial and shot. 

With the end of the American Civil War the United States 
took action at once on the Mexican situation. Secretary 
Seward had continued to protest against the aggressions of 
the French from the first, but as the Washington government 
was fully occupied with its own Civil War it was impossible to 
follow up the protests. United States troops were now sent 
to the Rio Grande, and Napoleon III at once 
'^^^'^'^ °* ^^ promised the withdrawal of his forces. Maxi- 
milian was now deserted by the power which 
had placed him upon his throne, and he contemplated abdica- 



^08 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

tion. The power of Juarez and his government spread rapidly, 
and in May, 1867, Maximilian, with a small force, was captured 
at Queretaro, together with Miramon and Mehia, two Mexican 
generals. They were tried by court martial on June 14, and 
shot June 19, despite the protests of European governments 
and prominent individuals, including Garibaldi and Victor 
Hugo. 

Juarez now became president and continued in office until 
his death in 1872. These were years of continued revolution, 
a clerical insurrection breaking out in 1869 and a republican in 
1870. At the second election of Juarez, in 1871, there were 
three candidates, Diaz and Lerdo, besides Juarez, and no 
candidate receiving a majority, the election was thrown to 
Congress and Juarez was elected. The followers of Diaz re- 
juarez President, fused to recoguize Juarez and raised a revolt, 
1867-1872. which continued until the death of Juarez in 

Tejada, 1872-1876 jgyg. On the death of Juarez he was suc- 
ceeded by the president of the Supreme Court, Lerdo de Tejada. 
Under his administration laws were passed attacking the su- 
premacy of the Cathohc Church, and Protestant missions were 
estabUshed. In 1873 the Vera Cruz and Mexico Railroad was 
opened, and as a whole these were years of economic advance. 
Toward the close of his administration Lerdo was suspected 
of aiming at a dictatorship and Diaz attempted to raise a 
rebellion in the north against him. This was, however, a failure, 
but after the reelection of Lerdo, Diaz was successful in 
starting a revolt in Oaxaca, which succeeded in overthrowing 
the government, and Diaz was declared president on May 2, 
1877. 

The first term of President Diaz was from 1877 to 1880, 
when he was succeeded by President Gonzales (1880-1884). In 
1884 Diaz was again elected president, and from that date to 
1910 he continued in office. Under the first administration of 
Diaz, and under President Gonzales, diplomatic relations were 
restored with both European and South American States, and a 
beginning was made in financial and economic retrenchment. 
After 1884 the constitution was so amended as to allow the 
continued reelection of Diaz, and down to 1910 Mexico was 



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 209 

without political strife. Diaz's policy may be summed up in 
The Administrations ^^^^e words: he put down disorder with a 
of Porfirio Diaz, stroug hand; enforced the law; fostered rail- 

I 77-1910 ^^^^ building and native manufactures; 

started new industries and gave them tariff protection; pro- 
moted education; protected the forests; encouraged coloniza- 
tion; and placed the national credit on a sound basis. The 
first task of Diaz was the pacification of the country. This was 
accomplished by means of the guardias rurales, or mounted 
police, which was composed of the class who in former days 
drifted into brigandage. Maintaining internal order was also 
greatly aided by the extension of raih-oads and telegraphs. 
The foreign policy of President Diaz was as successful as the 
home policy. Active measures were taken to establish arbi- 
tration for the Central American States; he accepted the Mon- 
roe Doctrine in the Venezuelan dispute, though suggesting that 
its maintenance should be undertaken by all the American 
powers rather than be left to the United States alone. Friendly 
relations were maintained with the United States to the end 
of his long term of ofl&ce. 

Under federal and democratic forms President Diaz exer- 
cised a strictly centralized and personal rule. In 1904 the vice- 
presidency, which had been previously abolished, was revived 
owing to the advancing age of Diaz. Don Ramon Corral was 
elected to that office and it became practically certain that if 
Diaz died in oflSce he would be succeeded by Corral without 
difficulty. The dictatorship of Diaz had been carried on 
largely in the interest of the large landholders. In 1896 a 
Causes of the Land Law was passed which permitted the 

Revolution in Mexico denunciation of all land not held by a legal 
°^ ^^^° title. Most of the small holdings were held 

by peons, who knew nothing of titles, and in most cases had 
occupied the land for generations, undisturbed. As a result of 
this law, great tracts of land passed into the possession of the 
great landholders while the peons were evicted by federal 
soldiers. The revolution which resulted in the overthrow of 
Diaz and his system was largely a peon revolution and the 
struggle has been in a sense a "war for the land." There was 



210 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

also a large and growing discontent over the dictatorial power 
exercised by Diaz and a desire to restore real republican gov- 
ernment. 

The leader in the revolution which overthrew Diaz was 
General Madero, and he was finally able to force President 
Diaz to resign on May 25, 1911, and later was elected consti- 
tutional president. No sooner was he estabhshed in ofl&ce 
than he was murdered by the tools of General Huerta, one of 

the generals in the federal army. This 
191^0-1911 " °° ° method of gaining ofl&ce naturally shocked 

the American people and President Wilson 
refused to recognize Huerta's government. General Carranza 
now came forward as an advocate of constitutional govern- 
ment, avoiding the important question of the distribution of 
land, which had been one of the promises made by Madero. 
Carranza finally succeeded in overthrowing Huerta and was 
elected president. In February, 1917, a new constitution was 
adopted, following in general the constitution of Juarez of 
1857, and since that time Mexico has become largely pacified, 
though Pancho Villa and his band of bandits are still at large, 
operating in the northern part of Mexico. 

Central American States 
On the formation of the Republic of Mexico in 1824 the 
Central American states resolved to set up an independent 
government, and a federation modeled after the United States 
was the result. On the 10th of April, 1825, a constitution was 
adopted, and General Manuel Joseph became the first pres- 
ident. In the confederation Guatemala had the chief influence, 
and the majority of members in the lower house. Salvador 
objected to the control of Guatemala, and an endless series of 
petty conflicts thus began. The constitution 

Central America jt ^ t, i i i • i 

Under the was a most liberal document, and is remark- 

confederation, q^Iq ^qj. ^]^q f^ct that it was the first one 

adopted by the Latin republics which abol- 
ished slavery. The government proceeded to pass a number 
of liberal laws. Convents were suppressed, secular priests were 
allowed to marry in Honduras, and in 1832 religious toleration 



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 211 

was declared. The clerical party, however, fought against the 
constitution and the reforms instituted. The next year after 
the formation of the union rebellions broke out in Nicaragua, 
and later in Guatemala. The man chiefly responsible for the 
maintaining of the union was Morazan, who in 1834 defeated 
the Guatamaltecs and transferred the seat of government to 
San Salvador. The Oligarchic party of Guatemala continued 
to make war upon the federation, and finally m 1838 it had 
been practically destroyed. 

In 1842 a second federation was formed, but this was no 
more successful than the first had been and was soon dissolved. 
Morizan, after the overthrow of the first confederation, had 
fled from the country, and on his return had been arrested and 
shot by his enemies. This was a great blow to the Liberal 
^^ ^ , ^ party in Central America. A third attempt 

The Second and » , . 

Third Attempts at at a Confederation was made m 1847, Hon- 
Confederation, 1842, duras, San Salvador, and Nicaragua uniting. 
Costa Rica, separated by high mountains 
from the other states, had taken no part in the second confed- 
eration, and was not a member of the third. The three states 
in the confederation desired Guatemala to join them, and a 
war begun to compel her to do so. General Carrera, of Guate- 
mala, however, defeated the federalists, and gradually the 
third confederation came to an end as a result of continuous 
civil strife. 

In 1846 the United States entered into a treaty with Co- 
lombia (then New Granada) by which the right of transit was 
given to the United States over the Isthmus of Panama. Under 
this treaty there was organized in 1850 the Panama Railroad 
Company, made up of United States citizens, and by 1855 the 
railroad was in operation. Previous to this treaty with Co- 
_„ lombia the United States had made an agree- 

The Panama Railroad i i • 

and the First Steps mcnt with Nicaragua looking toward the 
Toward a Canal building of a canal by way of Lake Nicaragua. 

This led to some complications with Great 
Britain, because of her claims to territory occupied by the 
Mosquito Indians, through which the canal was to pass. This 
was finally settled by the Clayton-Bulwer treaty between the 



212 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

United States and Great Britain, which was signed in 1850. 
The treaty provided for the provisional joint control of the 
canal by the United States and Great Britain. 

About this time an American adventurer by the name of 
William Walker got control of Nicaragua. He had gone to 
California in 1850 in the gold rush, and in 1853 had attempted 
a filibustering expedition into Mexico, which, however, was a 
failure. On his return to the East he conceived the idea of 
conducting a similar expedition into Nicaragua. He landed in 
the country in 1855 with seventy men, and soon succeeded, 
through the aid of the American consul, in securing for himsetf 
the appointment as commander-in-chief of the army. From 
this post he soon advanced to the presidency, and for two 
years maintained himself in Nicaragua as president. His orig- 
The Invasion of ^^^^ plans had been to form a military gov- 

wiuiam Walker and erumeut and proceed to the conquest of all 
His FUibusters Spanish America. At this time the slave- 

holders in the South were planning the extension of slavery 
and the adding of slave states to the Union by seizing Cuba 
and other states to the south. Walker, however, on having 
secured power, attempted to keep it for himself, and this 
proved his undoing. He was deserted by his friends m the 
United States when they learned of his purpose, and he was 
driven out by an insurrection in Nicaragua in 1857. He made 
two other attempts to regain his power in the country, but 
was captured in 1860 and put to death as a pirate. 

After the dissolution of the confederation the Clerical party 
controlled affairs in Central America for a number of years, 
under the leadership of Carrera, of Guatemala. After his death 
in 1865, the Liberal party came back to power, and even in 
Guatemala, the most conservative of all the Central American 
States, the Liberal party ruled. The period since the federation 
has been one of anarchy and confusion in all of the states 
except Costa Rica and Salvador, both of which have had, as 
a whole, a peaceful government. In Honduras, Guatemala, 
and Nicaragua conflict and revolution have been the rule rather 
than the exception. 

There have been at least two attempts in recent years to 



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES 213 

revive the confederation. In 1885 the president of Guatemala 
led a movement to restore federal unity, but the attempt 
Later Attempts at failed, and the promoter, President Barrios, 
confederatioix, 1885 lost his life. Again in 1895 there was formed 
"""^ ^^^ The Greater Republic of Central America, in 

which Nicaragua, Salvador, and Honduras actually united and 
maintained the union until 1898. It was hoped that Guate- 
mala and Costa Rica would also unite, and provision was made 
in the constitution for their admission, but before that was 
accomplished Salvador dissolved the union by her withdrawal. 

READING REFERENCES 

The fullest account of the political history of Mexico and Central 
America will be found in History of Central America, 3 vols. (1886-1887), 
and History of Mexico, by H. H. Bancroft; 6 vols. (1883). 

The articles in the Encyclopcedia Britannica on Mexico and Central 
America are excellent brief accoimts of the political history. 

In The Carnbridge Modern History, Vol. XII, Chapter XXI, is a brief 
historical sketch of the Republics of Latin America. 

For the Mexican War, History of the War with Mexico, by E. D. Mans- 
field (New York, 1849). 

For the history of Mexico since 1884 a number of magazine articles will 
be found of value: "Mexico tmder Diaz," by Itxirbide, North American 
Review, June, 1894; "Pohtics in Mexico," by Van Dyke, Harper's Maga- 
zine (1885), Vol. LXXI; "A Study of the Constitution of 1857," in Annals 
of the American Academy of Political Science, 1891. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

-THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE LATIN AMERICAN 

STATES 

The form of government which has been adopted through- 
out Latin America is republican, and however unsuccessful it 
may have been in practice, yet the people are thoroughly 
wedded to it in theory and will tolerate no other. Three times 
have monarchies been established in Latin America, twice in 
Mexico and in Brazil once, but all were failures. The chief 
reason for the lack of stability in Latin-American government 
seems to be lack of experience in self-government, as well as a 
lack of certain characteristics which self- 

Govemmental Char- j • j^i • t • i i 

acteristics and government tends to create m the mdividual. 

Conceptions of the j^ ^^q gj-st place, the Latin Americans have 

little conception of toleration in politics. 
They have all been educated in the Roman CathoUc Church 
and have brought "into politics the absolutism of religious 
dogmas." One party thinks of the other as completely wrong, 
while they have the absolute right on their side, hence their 
adversaries must be annihilated. "The hatred of one's op- 
ponents is the first duty of the politician," and so it is only by 
force and violence that a party can come into power. It may 
be said with truth that there is no such thing as pubhc opinion 
in Latin America. Elections give no opportunity for the free 
expression of the desires of the people, because they are con- 
ducted under the control of the government and the party in 
power; hence the only way for one party to replace another is 
by revolution. Revolution under such conditions seems to be 
a necessary form of political activity. 

Latin Americans are excellent theorists and constitution 
makers. On paper their instruments of government are almost 

perfect. Their ideas of justice and liberty 
c'oSti^onr are high, as high indeed as those of the 

Anglo-Saxon republics of the north. Their 
constitutions are written in solemn and impressive language 

214 



THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE STATES 215 

in which Divine approval is invoked, but a student of Latin- 
American politics will soon learn that it is one thing to make a 
constitution and quite another to carry it out and to abide 
by it. 

There are two types of republics prevailing in Latin America: 
centralized and federal. Under the first come Peru, Chile, 
Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Uruguay, and Paraguay, the repub- 
lics of Central America as well as the three island republics. Un- 
der the federal form come the larger states of Argentina, Brazil, 
General Character of Venezuela, and Mexico. All of the constitu- 
Latm American tious Separate the departments of govern- 

Govemments meut more or less distinctly into executive, 

legislative, and judicial. They all have elective presidencies, 
the president generally holding office for a period of four to six 
years. The legislative branch of the governments consists 
generally of a Congress of two chambers, a Senate and a Cham- 
ber of Deputies. The judicial department is provided with a 
Supreme Court, with appointive judges, while the provinces or 
states have special courts of their own. The constitutions 
generally recognize the Catholic rehgion as the religion of the 
state, though in some the establishment or prohibition of any 
form of religion is prohibited. In all the states education is 
free and compulsory. 

The Federal Republics 
The Mexican government was carried on under the constitu- 
tion of 1857 until the overthrow of President Diaz in 1911. 
Under this constitution the president held office six years, and 
was assisted by a Cabinet of eight secretaries, who were ap- 
pointed by the president and were directly responsible to him. 
Congress was made up of two houses, the Senate and the 
Chamber of Deputies, the former consisting of fifty-six mem- 
bers, two from each state and the federal district, and were 
elected indirectly for a term of four years. There were two 
hundred and thirty-three members of the Chamber of Deputies, 
also elected indirectly for a term of two years, one for every 
forty thousand inhabitants or fraction exceeding twenty thou- 
sand. Suffrage was possessed by all citizens of eighteen years 



216 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

of age if married and twenty-one years if not married. The 
executive departments were Foreign Affairs, Interior, Justice, 
Public Instruction and Fine Arts, Promotion, Communications 
and Public Works, Finance, War and Marine. The judicial 
organization consisted of a supreme court, three circuit courts, 
thirty-two district courts, and various other state, territorial, 
and federal district courts. 

Mexico is divided into twenty-seven states and three terri- 
tories and a federal district. Each state has a governor elected 

in the same manner as the president. There 
GoTCmme'nr' ^^® ^^^^ State Legislatures and courts. The 

governors of territories are appointed by the 
president, while the federal district is governed by three offi- 
cials, also appointed by the president. The states and terri- 
tories are divided into municipalities, each of which elects its 
own officials. 

The recent constitution of Mexico adopted in February, 
1917, follows the broad lines of the constitution of 1857. The 
only changes are made with the object of making it applicable 
to modem conditions. Among the restrictions placed in the 

constitution are those relating to the owner- 
The^constitutionof ghip of land. Foreigners are not to be aUowcd 

to mix in any manner in the political affairs 
of the country, while only Mexicans by birth or naturaUzation 
and Mexican companies are to have the right to acquire posses- 
sion of lands or waters, or to exploit mines or water rights. 
Foreigners may obtain such rights by appearing before the 
Secretary of Foreign Affairs and agreeing to be considered as 
Mexicans in respect to the titles involved, and they shall also 
agree not to invoke the protection of their governments. The 
new constitution also provides for the strict government regu- 
lation of the church and all ministers of whatever cult must be' 
Mexicans by birth. Marriage is to be considered as a civil 
contract and education is to be conducted by lay teachers. 

Aegentina 
The present constitution of the Argentine Republic was 
adopted in 1853 and was closely modeled after that of the 



THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE STATES 217 

United States. The legislative power is vested in a national 
Congress of two houses, a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, 
the former with thirty members, the latter with one hundred 
and twenty. Senators are elected for a term of nine years by 

the Legislatures of the several provinces, 
ment of Argentina™" Deputies are elected by direct vote of the 

people, one for every thirty thousand peo- 
ple. The president and vice-president are elected as in the 
United States, and serve for a term of six years. The vice- 
president is also the president of the Senate. The president 
must be a Roman Catholic and possess an income of $2,000 a 
year. The salary received by the president is $31,680 (72,000 
pesos), while members of Congress receive $5,000 a year. The 
president is assisted by eight ministers, who form his Cabinet. 
The departments are Interior, Foreign Affairs and Worship, 
Treasury, Justice and Public Instruction, War, Navy, Agricul- 
ture, and Public Works. The judiciary is composed of a su- 
preme court, four courts of appeal, and courts of first instance. 
Each province has its own judiciary machinery. 

Argentina has fourteen provinces, ten territories, and a fed- 
eral district. The governors of the provinces are elected by 

the people, while the governors of the terri- 
GOTernment"^ torics are appointed by the president, as is 

also the mayor of the Federal district. Mili- 
tary service is compulsory and an army of 20,000 is maintained, 
while in case of mobilization an army of 120,000 is available. 
Argentina has a navy of forty vessels and a naval reserve of 

25,000 men. 

Brazil 

The constitution adopted on the overthrow of the empire is 
still in force in Brazil. Like the Mexican and Argentine con- 
stitutions, the government is divided into three distinct de- 
partments. The Senate and Chamber of Deputies make up 
the legislative branch. The Senate is composed of three sena- 
tors from each state and three from the federal district, elected 
by direct vote for a term of nine years. The Chamber of 
Deputies is made up of members elected in the same manner 
as the senators, one for every seventy thousand people, and 



218 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

serve three years. All male citizens over twenty-one are en- 
titled to vote. Congress meets once a year, 
•?BrSi^°^^"*"*°* ^^ ^^y ^' ^^^ remains in session four 
months, but it may be called in extra session 
by the president. The executive government consists of the 
president, assisted by a Cabinet of seven members appointed by 
the president and responsible to him. Both president and vice- 
president are elected for a period of four years, by direct vote, 
and may not be immediately reelected. The judicial part of 
the government consists of a supreme court and a federal court 
for each state. The supreme court judges are appointed as in 
the United States and hold office for life. 

Brazil has twenty states, one territory, and a federal district. 
Like the other federal republics, a large degree of self-govem- 

Locai Govenunent ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ *^ *^^ states. Military scrvice is 
and Miutary compulsory for all ablcbodicd men between 

Organization ^-^^ ^^^^ ^£ ^^enty-ouc and forty-five. The 

war strength of the army is 300,000 men, and Brazil has one of 
the strongest navies among Latin-American states, with fifty- 
five vessels and nearly 10,000 men. The post office is well estab- 
lished with nearly 4,000 offices and a federal telegraph with over 

20,000 miles of fine. 

Venezuela 

The constitution of Venezuela is the latest of the federal 
instruments of government, having been adopted on the over- 
throw of Castro in 1909. It is also the most conservative of 
the federal constitutions, in that the president is elected by the 
national Congress and not by a direct vote of the people. 
Senators are also elected by the state Legislatures. Senators 
must be thirty years old and native Venezuelans, while Depu- 
ties must be twenty or more years of age 
ff^enMneir"™^"* ^^^ nativcs of Venezuela. Congress meets 
every year for a session of seventy days only, 
and this time may not be extended. The president holds office 
for four years, and is not eligible for immediate reelection. 
Another feature of the Venezuelan constitution is the Council 
of Government, composed of one member from each district, a 
district being composed of two states. These officials are 



THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE STATES 219 

elected by Congress and serve for one year only. The pres- 
ident's cabinet is composed of seven members appointed in the 
usual way. The departments are Interior, Foreign, Finance 
and Public Credit, War and Marine, Promotion, Public Works, 
and Public Instruction. There are a supreme court and a cassa- 
tion court, as well as courts of appeal and minor courts. 

Venezuela is divided into twenty states, two territories, and 
a federal district. Each state has its own governor and legisla- 
^ . ^ ^ tive assemblies, as well as local courts. The 

Local Government . ' 

states are divided into districts and the latter 
into municipalities. Venezuela maintains a small standing 
army and a small navy, while compulsory miUtary service is 
demanded of ablebodied males. 

The Centralized Republics 
The centralized repubhcs of South America are Chile, 
Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Uruguay, and Paraguay. As far as 
their national governments are concerned 

General Charactens- , , 

tics of the they are similar to the federal republics. The 

Governments of the difference comes in the state governments. 

Centralized Republics i i • i ,• i_ v i 

All have national legislative bodies composed 
of two houses, elective presidents, and national supreme courts. 
Bolivia and Peru have provisions for two vice-presidents. Uru- 
guay elects her president by the general Assembly, while Chile 
elects by electors, and Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia by direct 
vote. 

Chile is divided into twenty-three provinces and a national 
territory. These in turn are divided into departments, dis- 
Locai Governments tncts, and municipalities. The provuices are 
in the Centralized govemcd by intendcnts, who are appointed 
Repubhcs l^y. ^Y^Q president, while the departments are 

governed by governors, and the districts by inspectors. Bo- 
hvia is hkewise divided into departments and they into prov- 
inces, provinces into cantons, and the cantons into municipali- 
ties. The departments are governed by prefects, who receive 
their appointment from the president; Uruguay is also divided 
into departments which are subdivided into sections and 
districts. 



220 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The governments of the Central American states follow the 
centralized system. The various republics are divided into 
departments, at the head of which are governors, appointed 
Governments of the ^j the Central govemment. ^ With the excep- 
Centrai American tion of Nicaragua, the legislative power is 
^***®^ vested in a single chamber elected by the 

people. Each republic has a president elected by direct vote, 
who holds office from four to six years. Like all the other 
Latin republics, the three departments of govemment are dis- 
tinctly divided into executive, legislative, and judicial. 

The two republics on the island of Haiti are also centralized 
states. Each has a legislative assembly composed of two 
houses, a president with a cabinet, and a supreme court. 

Haiti is divided for local administration into 
^^dRe^^bUcs*^* ^^^ departments, while Santo Domingo has 

twelve provinces. The govemment of Cuba 
is modeled after that of the United States, and is the only one 
of the small republics which has a federal form of govemment, 
though, strictly speaking, it is a combination of the centralized 
and federal form. The Cuban province is less important than 
the state of the American Union. The president is elected by 
electors; Congress has two houses; justice is administered by 
courts of various grades, as in the United States. Cuba has 
six provinces, each of which elects its own governor, though the 
president may interfere, if necessary, in the local govemment, 
such interference being subject to a review of the courts. 

READING REFERENCES 

The constitutions of the various Latin republics may be found in Amer- 
ican Constitutions, by J. I. Rodriguez, 2 vols. (1906); also in Modern Con- 
stitutions, by W. F. Dodd (1909). 

The general descriptive pamphlets of the Pan-American Union give a 
brief summary of the constitution and government of the respective 
republics. 

T?ie Mexican Constitution of 1917 compared with the Constitution of 1857 
(American Academy of Political Science, 1917, Appendix), by H. N. 
Branch. 

South America, by James Bryce, Chapter XV; and Latin America, by 
F. Garcia Calderon, Chapter III of Book VI, will be found useful in study- 
ing the governments of Latin America. 



CHAPTER XIX 
RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 

The People of Latin America 
The race composition in Latin America has been much 
misunderstood. Many still think of Latin Americans as 
largely of European stock. But the people of South Amer- 
ica are not properly described as of European stock, for by 
far the largest proportion of the population inhabiting the 
The People of Latin V^^i^^s couutries of Latin America are of 
America Not Pure- ttiative stock. The mixing of the Spaniards 
Blooded Europeans j^^^^ Portuguese with the native Indian popu- 
lation began with the colonization period and has continued 
without interruption until the present. Hence there is a very 
large half-breed, or mestizo class, which is particularly dense in 
those sections of Latin America where the early colonizers 
came in contact with a comparatively high type of native 
civilization. So we must expect to find the largest number of 
mestizos in the western coast republics of South America, and 
in Central America and Mexico, for it was here the Spaniard 
came in contact with Aztec and Inca civilizations. 

Besides this large half-breed class there are many full- 
blooded Indians still to be found in Latin America. Mexico, 
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, as well as Brazil, have 
large numbers of full-blooded Indians living within their bor- 
ders. At least thirty-five per cent of Mexico's population are 
of this class, while Peru has sixty per cent. In Ecuador at 
least two thirds of the population are Indian, 
in Bolivia more than half, while Chile, Co- 
lombia, and Venezuela have from fifteen to twenty per cent 
Indians. The east coast countries of Brazil, Argentina, and 
Uruguay have a smaller proportion, though Brazil has perhaps 
the largest number of wild Indians. Brazil's proportion is not 
more than ten per cent, while Argentina has not more than ten 
thousand all told, and Uruguay has a still smaller proportion. , 

221 



222 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Besides these two large classes in the population of Latin 
America, there is in Brazil especially a large Negro population, 
both full-blooded and mixed, amounting to at least twenty 
per cent of the whole. The mixture of the Indian with the 
Negro is known as the zambo, and is found in Brazil and Vene- 
zuela particularly. The presence of these large classes of ig- 
norant people in the Latin-American states accounts for their 
lack of stability in government. When we know of the prev- 
alence of the Indian in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, 
Venezuela, and Mexico, we are prepared for the statement 
that these are the most backward of the Latin- American 
states. 

In all the repubhcs it is the small white population which 
rules. In considering this class we must first of all remember 
that they are themselves a complex race and that they have 
certain Oriental characteristics. They are full of imagination; 
far more so than the North American. They are Ukewise 
much more sentimental and impulsive. They have high ideals, 
Characteristics of the ^hich they seldom succeed m putting into 
Ruling Race in Latin practice. They are an exceedingly polite 

^""^ race, and even the poorest peon is a gentle- 

man toward others. In this respect the Latin American has 
much to teach the North American. Men embrace when they 
meet or part, and their family life is most affectionate. They 
care little for money for money's own sake, and express con- 
tempt for those who exalt the dollar above everything else, as 
many in this country seem to do. Human life is held cheap 
among them, due to their long contact with subject races, 
over whom they have always exercised power of life and death. 
They are generous toward their friends, but they seem to 
have little regard for the public good. The Latin American 
responds quickly to anything said or done which shows appre- 
ciation of his country and its ways, but resents criticism which 
comes from those whom he considers no farther along in civili- 
zation than himself. 

Judged by the North American, the moral standards of the 
South American are low. In those South American states 
where the Indian races are in the majority moral standards 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 223 

are liable to be drawn from the Indian and not from the Euro- 
pean stock. The Indian or half-breed mother gives to her 
child her own moral standard rather than that of the white 
father. Marriage is ignored to an alarming extent in South 
America. In Lima fifty-one per cent of the 
JJ^eriL^s*^* ^*^ children born are illegitimate, and this per- 
centage, while not the same throughout all 
of the republics, is nevertheless very large everywhere. One 
of the reasons given why the young men of South America are 
so much occupied with sex thoughts is that they have so little 
to do. They have no athletics, games, or even business, to 
occupy their attention. As a consequence family life is not 
developed. There is very little marriage among the Cholos of 
Bolivia, which is true also of the Indians in all of the west 
coast countries. Another of the weaknesses of the South 
American is alcoholism, which is said to be the worst in the 
world in Chile. The Indians especially are hard drinkers, 
though this is not so true of the people of the east coast coun- 
tries. 

The weak points in the character of the South American 
may be summed up in these words — ^niutual distrust, excessive li 
pride, self-indulgence, indolence, and want of persistence." 
Mutual distrust is found everywhere. One of the reasons for 
the turbulence which prevails in the political 
La^^Americans ^^® ^^ *^® Latin Americans is their distrust 

of the motives of others. They seem almost i ; 
incapable of working together in a common work for the com- 
mon cause. Joint stock companies often fail for this reason. 
One political party has no faith in the motives or principles of 
the other. There is no such thing as student activities in theii', 
universities, no university spirit, no class feeling, no fratemi- 1 
ties. This mutual distrust is carried into every phase of life, 
and is one of the weaknesses most difficult to overcome, for 
without faith of people in one another it would be impossible 
to develop modem business or stable government. 

Among the people of pure white blood every form of bodily 
exercise is avoided, and for this reason there is a great poverty 
of physique among both males and females. Girls are taught 



224 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

nothing about housekeeping, while the young men idle away 
their time. The South American seems to have no shame 
about giving up. They are good beginners but poor finishers, 
and the sneer of "quitter" is never heard. A recent traveler 
in South America has noted the great number of unfinished 
monuments in Bolivia, an indication of this characteristic, or 
rather failing, of the Latin American. 

The mestizo, the result of the mixture of the white and In- 
dian races, tends to increase the most rapidly, while the pure- 
blooded Indian is on the decrease. Physically the mestizo is 
undersized, smaller than either of the races from which they 
have sprung. They are a Spanish-speaking people and nom- 
inally Christian, but they are superstitious, and in most cases 
extremely apathetic. In spite of their back- 

The Mestizos ^ x- r- 

ward condition, however, there are many who 
consider the mestizo as the coming race in Latin America, 
especially in the west coast region, and the development of 
these countries seems to depend largely upon the development 
of this half-breed race. The proportion of mestizos in the 
various republics is as follows: Mexico, 50 per cent; Peru, 30; 
Brazil, 30; Ecuador, 25; Bolivia, from 30 to 40; Colombia, 40; 
Venezuela, 70; Chile, 60; while Argentina and Uruguay have 
the smallest proportion, only a small fraction of their respective 
populations belonging to this class. 

Ranking lowest in the social scale come the Negro and zambo, 
the latter the result of the mixing of the Indian and the Negro 
races. Ecuador and Peru have a few thousands of this class, 
while Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil have a much larger 
number. In Colombia thirty-five per cent of 
the population is represented by the Negro 
and the mixtures of Negroes with other races. Venezuela has 
perhaps a ten-per-cent Negro population, while in Brazil the 
Negro element is larger and more important than in any of the 
Latin-American states. This is due to the fact that slavery 
continued to exist in Brazil longer than in any of the other 
states, and also to the fact that race mixture has gone on there 
with less hindrance from the beginning. 

Latin America as a whole has many races and many castes, 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 225 

and to procure the best results in a republic, unity of race, 
language, and ideals must somehow be achieved. So far Latin 
America has been governed by the pure white race, while the 
Indian and the mestizo have been practically serfs. Mean- 
while the mestizo has gone on increasing, while the Indian is 
decreasing. The future of at least the largest number of Latin- 
American states seems to lie with the mestizo. 

The present population of the various Latin-American states 
is as follows: Brazil is the most populous, with nearly 25,000,000 
of people; coming next to Brazil in point of population is 
Mexico, with from 15,000,000 to 17,000,000; Argentina ranks 
third, with an estimated population of between 7,000,000 and 
8,000,000; Chile's population is nearly 3,500,000; Peru's is esti- 
mated at from 3,500,000 to 4,000,000, while the populations of 
Bolivia and Ecuador approach 2,000,000 each; like most of 
the other Latin-American states, the populations of Venezuela 
. . and Colombia can only be estimated, as there 

Population 

has been no careful census in either country 
in recent years; Colombia's population cannot exceed 4,000,- 
000, while that of Venezuela is not more than 2,750,000. Uru- 
guay has about 1,000,000 people, while Paraguay has something 
less than 1,000,000. The total population of the Central 
American states does not exceed 5,000,000, distributed about 
as follows: Guatemala, 2,000,000; Honduras, 553,000; Nica- 
ragua, 600,000; Salvador, 1,700,000; Costa Rica, 386,000; 
Panama, 336,000. Cuba has a population of 2,162,000, while 
the two republics in the island of Haiti have a population of 
about 2,000,000 in the Republic of Haiti and 673,611 in the 
Dominican Republic. The total population of the whole of 
Latin America is nearly 75,000,000. 

European Population 

The countries to which most of the European peoples immi- 
grate are Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. Italians 
have come out to South America in great numbers, constituting 
the largest single contribution in recent years to the pure white 
population of the three eastern republics. The total immigra- 
tion into Argentina from 1857 to 1908 was 4,250,000, of whom 



226 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

1,750,000 were Italians; 670,000 Spaniards; 40,000 British; 
. „ , . 26,000 Germans; 25,000 Swiss, and 20,000 

Foreign Population -r> i • r ,i , , c n^k -r> i t» -i 

and Immigration to Belgians. In the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 
Argentina. Brazu. there is a compact colony of over 1,000,000 

ChUe, and Uruguay ,. t • x- j i • x- • 

Itahans. Imnugration and colonization in 
Brazil are increasing. The German population in 1906 was 
estimated at from 350,000 to 500,000. They were situated 
mostly in the southern states. In 1911 there were 134,000 
immigrants registered in Brazil. Of these 47,764 were Portu- 
guese; 22,820 Italians; 13,900 Russians; 4,220 Turks; 5,850 
British, while Spaniards, French, and Swedes number some 
thousands each. Of the total population of Brazil only seven 
per cent, however, are foreign. Chile has made considerable 
effort to secure European immigration. Germans have settled 
in the southern part of the country, where they have built 
several important towns and agricultural communities, though 
the actual number of Germans in the country is not large. In 
1895 the foreigners in the Chilean population were not more 
than 75,000. In 1907 the immigration to Uruguay included 
26,000 Italians, 22,000 Spanish, and ovct 2,000 each of British, 
Germans, and French. 

Mexico's foreign population does not number more than 
60,000, with Spaniards the most numerous, and Americans 
next. Peru and Venezuela have a small foreign population, 
and in the latter country there are a considerable number of 
Asiatics, Chinese, and Japanese. One of the most important 
problems in Latin America is the obtaining of immigrant labor. 
Argentina and Brazil maintain immigration service, and such 
inducements are offered as free lodging, food, and medical 
service for five days, free transportation into the interior, and 
land at a nominal price. One of the chief obstacles to immi- 
gration is the fact that the land along the railroads and about 
the seaports is held in immense estates, and it is very difl&cult 
Problems and *^ obtaiu smaU holdings. Chile provides free 

Difficulties of im- passagc for immigrants from European ports, 
migration ^^^ ^ ^^.^^ grant of land of ninety-four acres 

for each head of a family and forty-four additional acres for 
each son over ten years of age. In addition a loan is obtainable 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 227 

from the govermnent during the first year, as well as other 
aids. Peru is also very desirous of immigration, but so far 
promotion of colonization has been left to private enterprise. 
Mexico also offers inducements for immigrants, such as free 
transports of immigrants to the interior, as well as free tools, 
seed, and other helps. 

So far the great body of immigrants to Latin-American coun- 
tries has come from the countries of southern Europe, while 
people from northern Europe have not come out in any great 
numbers. In 1901 the total number of Itahans in South Amer- 
ica was about 1,750,000, of which number at least 1,600,000 
„ , ^, ^ were in Argentina and Brazil. Present con- 

Unfavorable Con- . ° . 

^tions for American ditions m Latm America are not favorable 
and English f^j. immigration from the British Isles or from 

Imnugration , 

America for the reason that educated men of 
small capital will j5nd Httle opportunity in these countries, unless 
they receive a salary. The work in shops and stores is done in 
Latin America by the middle-class natives at a very low wage. 
The English workman coming to Latin America would be 
compelled to work among half-breeds, which the average Eng- 
lish and American will hardly consent to do. If suitable con- 
ditions could be secured for this class of immigration it would 
no doubt prove greatly beneficial for those countries. 

The greatest social problem which confronts Latin-American 
countries is the uplifting of their working classes. Agricultural 
and mining labor throughout these countries is made up of 
half-breeds or Indians. Mexico has 15,000,000 peons— Indians, 
The Problem of ^^^ half -breeds. In Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, 

Uplifting the Working Colombia, and Venezuela the great mass of 
^^^^^^ the population is of this same class, while 

Chile, Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina are little better off in 
this respect. Part of this problem may be solved by increased 
education. Until intelligence becomes more widespread real 
democracies are impossible. "The power of a people to help 
itself and throw off the oppressions of an upper class is in pro- 
portion to the stage of its education." 

The Spanish colonists were builders of cities, and the cities of 
Latin America to-day are developed far beyond the country 



228 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

districts. The largest of the Latin-American cities is Buenos 
Ayres, the capital of Argentina, which is the second Latin city 
in the world. The population is over 1,500,000. The city is 
largely built of brick covered with stucco, the architecture 
being Italian, with an excess of ornament. In many respects 
Buenos Ayres is like Chicago, being the great grain-shipping 
port of South America. Rosario is the second city in Argen- 
tina, situated some one hundred and seventy miles up the 
Parana, with a population of 250,000. Other Argentina cities, 
ranging from 30,000 to 90,000 inhabitants, are La Plata, Cor- 
doba, Mendoza, and Tucuman. Montevideo, the capital of 
Uruguay, is also an important shipping point with over 300,000 
people and is one of the most pleasing of South American 
cities. In many respects the most beautiful 

Latin American Cities . .t-a • • -m' i t • 

City m Latm America is Kio de Janeiro, 
situated on one of the best harbors in the world, with snow- 
clad mountains in the background. The population of Rio is 
nearly 1,000,000. Other large and important Brazihan cities 
are Bahia, with some 200,000 people; S3o Paulo, with 350,000; 
and Santos, the port of Sao Paulo. Santiago, the capital of 
Chile, is the largest city on the western coast, with a population 
of 400,000. Valparaiso is the most important port on the 
Pacific coast in South America, while two hundred miles to the 
north is Coquimbo, another important Chilean port. The 
two most important cities in Peru are Lima, with 150,000 
people, and Callao, the seaport of Lima, with a population of 
35,000. As a commercial center Callao is second only to Val- 
paraiso. Quito and Guayaquil are the two largest cities in 
Ecuador, the former with 80,000 and the latter with 60,000 peo- 
ple. Bogota, the capital of Colombia, has a population of 
120,000, while Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, has a popula- 
tion of 73,000. Mexico City has a population of 344,721, while 
Guadalajara is the second city in Mexico, with 101,208 people. 

Education 
In colonial times whatever educational facilities existed in 
the Spanish or Portuguese colonies were imder the control of 
the Roman Church. Such education was based upon dogma- 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 229 

tism and obedience and there was no general and popular 
„ .■ ^ . education, as in the modern sense. The Uni- 

Early Education . , , , 

versities were designed to tram men for the 
priesthood, and the whole system was ecclesiastical and aris- 
tocratic. Latin America has never entirely broken away from 
this type of education. A number of the older universities are 
still under the control of the Roman Church, and in a number 
of instances the church controls both primary and secondary 
education. 

Most of the leaders in the Latin-American states have rec- 
ognized the importance of education in the development of 
their respective countries, and all of the constitutions have 
made provision for the carrying out of a comprehensive edu- 
cational program. Recent leaders have realized that popular 
government can rest only upon popular intelligence, and where 
ignorance and illiteracy exist real democratic government is 
impossible. Each government has its min- 
SSor'Su^tion ister of education or a department of educa- 
tion under some other officer. Practically 
every republic has a system of free, compulsory primary educa- 
tion, while some of the more advanced coimtries have likewise 
free secondary schools. In most instances the government also 
maintains certain colleges and universities. On paper these 
educational systems leave little to be desired, but, like many 
other things in Latin America, there is a considerable difference 
between plan and practice. Popular education has never really 
germinated in Latin America. It has always entered the coun- 
try by way of the capital and has never become a popular ideal. 
("It has been introduced by idealists and social reformers; it"^!, 
has never become a popular demand." 

The most advanced republics from the educational stand- 
point are Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Argentina owes 
much of her educational advance to the pioneer work of Sar- 
miento, who became president in 1868, and at once began 
promoting education. He commissioned Dr. William Good- 
fellow, an American missionary, to send out American women 
to establish normal schools, where teachers could be trained. 
These were loyally supported, and this gave Argentina the 



230 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

lead in educational matters for many years. Primary educa- 
tion is free and compulsory, but at the present time of the total 
number of children of primary age only 
SinS^dChUe about half are in school. Secondary educa- 
tion is not compulsory in Argentina, though 
the government maintains nearly thirty secondary and thirty- 
five normal schools. There are three universities, Cordoba, one 
of the very old universities in Latin America, and La Plata and 
Buenos Ayres, the last two being comparatively young institu- 
tions. Chile maintains over 2,500 primary schools, some 75 
secondary schools, 16 training colleges, as well as 6 agricultural 
colleges, 10 commercial schools, 3 mining schools, and 29 tech- 
nical schools for women, where all kinds of practical work are 
taught; also a school of art, music, and drama. Chile owes 
much of her educational advance to the work of Balmaceda. 
There are two Chilean universities, a National University and 
a Catholic University. Education in Uruguay ranks about 
equal with Argentina, and less than fifty per cent of the people 
are illiterate. 

The educational system in Brazil differs somewhat from most 
of the other states, in, that the federal government provides the 
higher education, while the primary education is left to the 
several states. Naturally, there is a great difference among 
the states in the way they maintain their 
^st«a'oTBrazii schools. The most progressive states, Minas 

Geraes, Rio Grande do Sul, and Sao Paulo, 
have over half of the public schools. Brazil has no universities, 
but maintains separate schools of medicine, law, engineering, 
etc. Neither has it any central educational organization, 
which leaves much to be desired. The government has recently 
passed a new educational law abolishing the degree of doctor, 
maintaining that such a degree is undemocratic. 

In the west-coast countries and in Colombia and Venezuela 
education is in a more backward state. Peru has a free and 
compulsory primary educational system, though only a small 
proportion of the children of school age are actually in school. 
Bolivia also has a free and compulsory educational system, the 
primary schools being under the control of the launicipalities, 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 231 

The total number of primary schools in Bolivia does not exceed 
600, with not more than 40,000 pupils. In Peru something 
over 100,000 receive instruction, while over 300,000 children of 
school age are not in school. Illiteracy in both countries is very 

great. In Ecuador, in 1900, there were 
Conditions ia^^mT 80,000 childi'eu in attendance upon the 1,300 
BoUvia. Ecuador. primary schools, and 4,500 pupils in the 37 

s2dPax&ga&j^^^^^' secondary schools. Ecuador maintains three 

universities, namely, Quito, Guayaquil, and 
Cuenca, while there is also at Quito an agricultural and 
military school, and a naval school at Guayaquil. In 1908 
there were in Venezuela 1,150 public schools with 36,000 pupils, 
and a considerable number of parochial schools. There is a 
university at Caracas, and also one at Merida, as well as sev- 
eral professional schools. In Colombia the educational system 
is still under the control of the church, and in many respects 
Colombia lags behind most of the other states in its educational 
system. In 1906 there were 219,000 in all the schools, primary, 
secondary, and universities. Ninety per cent of the people, 
however, are illiterate. There are two universities, one at 
Bogota, and the other at Medellin, while there are also a few 
normal schools, as well as agricultural and technical schools. 
Paraguay stands at the bottom of the list from the educa- 
tional standpoint, although primary education is free and com- 
pulsory. 

The educational situation in Mexico is fairly good. The laws 
provide for a free compulsory and nonsectarian education, and 
also preparatory courses for professional training are likewise 
free. In 1904 there were 9,000 public schools, about two thirds 
maintained by the government, with about 650,000 pupils. 
Besides these schools there are private and religious schools 

with some 135,000 pupils. The old Univer- 
L^d CenttJTwSa ^ity of Mexico ceased to exist in 1865 and was 

succeeded by professional schools maintained 
by the government. The proportion of illiteracy in Mexico, 
however, is very high, being nearly eighty-five per cent. In 
the Central American republics primary education is free and 
compulsory, though lack of funds, public unrest, and lack of 



•iH 



232 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

interest have worked against the development of the schools. 
Illiteracy in most of the states is very high, being at least 
eighty per cent in Guatemala. The most progressive state 
educationally is Costa Rica. 

The chief enemies of education in Latin America are the 
church and the great landed proprietors. The proprietor wants 
the son of the peon to walk in the footsteps of his father, in 
order that the son may remain in the mud hut on the land. 
The church wants the peon to remain in ignorance so that the 
priest may continue to exploit him. One of the greatest handi- 
caps in building up schools throughout South 

Handicaps Working . . i • -» x • • >i i i c -n 

Against BuUding Up America and m Mexico is the lack of village 
of Schools in Latin ^nd town Ufe. The land is largely held by 
great landlords, while the people who till the 
land are dependent upon the owner for school advantages, and 
in most cases he makes no effort to provide schools for the 
children of his peons. Another lack is suitable schoolhouses. 
In most instances dwelling houses are used or old convents or 
monasteries, which are poorly adapted for school purposes. 
Suitable teachers are also hard to find. In some instances 
teachers are being trained in the normal schools, but so far the 
output is far below the demand. Teaching methods are quite 
generally very crude, the pupils learning by rote and studying 
aloud, as in China. Even university students learn chemistry 
by committing formulae rather than by the laboratory method. 

Latin-American Literature 
Since their independence the Latin-American states have de- 
veloped a rich literature, which is, however, little known among 
North Americans or Europeans. The literature immediately 
succeeding the revolutions followed classic models, which in 
turn gave way to romanticism. One South American sum- 
marizes the literature of this period thus: ''All things favored 
romanticism; the political conflicts and the anarchy of the 
time formed Byronic heroes. . . . Melancholy, exasperated in- 
dividualism, . . . are reflected in American literature." Among 
the poets of this period are Car, of Colombia; Andrade, of 
Argentina; and Salaverry, of Peru. To the Latin- American 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 233 



poet of this period romanticism was not simply a matter of art, 
but grew out of his own Hfe. Of the poets of this school An- 
drade stands out as the greatest. In recent years Latin- 
American hterature has been influenced by French models. 
Among contemporary writers are Manuel Ugarte, of Argen- 
tina; Ricardo Palma, of Peru; Ricardo Rojas, of Argentina; 
and others of equal note. Latin Americans have written in 
recent years novels and short stories of great brilliancy. The 
novelists have rich and subtle vocabularies, and an artistic 
sense which gives them a flavor quite their own. In recent 
years South Americans have also begun to interpret their own 
history and ideals. Among this type are the brilliant books 
by F. Garcia-Calderon of Peru, Latin America, Its Rise and 
Progress, and The Two Americas, by ex-President Reyes, of 
Colombia, both of which have been translated into English. 

The most important newspaper center in Latin America is 
Buenos Ayres. The two principal daily papers. La Prensa 
and La Nacion, have a circulation of more than one hun- 
dred thousand copies. These papers are modern in every 
respect, with cabled news from every part of the world. Be- 
sides these prominent papers are many vernacular newspapers 
pubhshed in Buenos Ayres. The papers are more like those 
in America than the European papers, in that they are some- 
what sensational. Of the periodicals published in the capital 
of Argentina, 214 are in Spanish, 22 in Italian, 8 in German, 
10 in English, and others in Russian, French, 
ifws^ei''^ Basque, and Scandinavian. The oldest news- 

paper in Chile is El Mercurio, which was 
estabhshed in 1827. In 1910 there were in Chile 419 periodical 
publications. Of these 100 were published in the capital, 37 in 
Coquimbo, 32 in Valparaiso, 23 in Concepcion. In Mexico the 
press has played a considerable part since 1884. In this year 
the first newspapers were sold upon the streets of Mexico, and 
since that date they have taken on the character of modern 
dailies. In 1910 there were 225 periodicals in the capital, 
among them being 10 Spanish dailies, 2 English, and 1 French. 
The cities of Brazil are also well supplied with newspapers, as 
are also Peru and Uruguay. In Bolivia daily newspapers are 



234 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

published in the more important cities and at least a weekly 
paper is published in every department capital. The Vene- 
zuelan newspapers are distinguished by their literary character. 
All the Central American states, as well as the republics of 
Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Cuba, have numerous newspapers. 

The Religious Situation in Latin America 
From the first Latin America has been devoutly Roman 
CathoUc. As has been pointed out in a previous chapter, one 
of the chief motives of the Spanish and Portuguese coloniza- 
tion and conquest of Central and South America was religious. 
Queen Isabella was particularly interested in the conversion of 
the Indians, and this duty was continuously urged upon the 
discoverers and explorers. The expeditions of every important 
explorer carried priests; at every opportunity native temples 
introdtiction of WBie tumed iuto Christian churches, mass 

Christianity into Latin was Said, and the natives were induced to be 
^"^"'^ baptized by the wholesale. The pious names 

which are found everyivhere in Latin America are a testimony 
to the religious fervor of the early explorers and conquerors. 
Representatives of the religious orders, especially the Francis- 
cans and Dominicans, as well as secular priests, came out in 
large numbers. After the organization of the Jesuits they be- 
came active in missionary work, achieving their greatest suc- 
cesses in Brazil and Paraguay. The Catholicism brought to 
America was, of course, the Spanish and Portuguese type. At 
the beginning of the colonial period Spain had just passed 
through a Catholic revival; the church had been thoroughly 
cleansed and rendered especially efficient. The Inquisition had 
also been established just a few years before Columbus made 
his first voyage and enthusiasm for religion had become one 
of the chief Spanish traits. 

The methods used in converting the Indians have not served 
to make of them real Christians. Too often the missionaries 
were satisfied with simply a nominal acceptance of Christianity 
on the part of the natives and no adequate effort was made to 
instruct them in the principles of Christianity. Too often also 
the Spanish conqueror imposed his religion on the natives by 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 235 

force and to-day the religion of the natives of Peru, BoHvia, and 
Ecuador impresses the traveler as "a timid 
corve*^^the toSs and superstitious submission, without confi- 
dence and zeal." As a result of these methods 
the Indian in South America to-day is a nominal Christian only, 
while at heart he is still a pagan. He still worships images made 
of clay, while in time of drought he worships lakes, rivers, and 
springs. When frost threatens he adores the stars, lights bon- 
fires, and buys masses. He still consults the future by opening 
animals and inspecting the entrails, just as the priests were 
doing when Cortes entered the Aztec capital. Every village 
has its chapel, where abides the patron saint, and every year 
there is celebrated a great eight-day feast in honor of the saint, 
in which drunkenness, dancing, and carousal are the chief 
features. 

The type of piety seen commonly in Latin America strikes 
one as more mediaeval than modem. There are many wonder- 
working shrines throughout every Latin-American country and 
to these come hundreds of credulous people. Such a shrine is 
to be found in a church at Cordoba, Argentina, and another in 
Santos, Brazil. Following the custom of applying pious names 
to places, begun by the early discoverers, the 

Latin American Piety % -r • a . t i i • 

modem Latm American displays such signs as 
"Butcher Shop of the Holy Spkit," "Furniture Shop of the 
Saviour." A certain bottling house in Peru calls its product 
"Jesus Water," while on a certain Good Friday a magazine 
came out with a picture advertising a brand of cigarettes, show- 
ing Christ in the foreground, and Judas and others in the back- 
ground, all smoking that particular brand of cigarette. Judas 
is remarking, "If I had had such cigarettes to smoke, I wouldn't 
have betrayed Him." As a whole the Catholic Church in 
Latin America has little to resemble the same church in the 
United States and there seems little chance of things improving 
until education and intelligence become much more common 
than at present. 

Bolivar opposed the union of church and state, stating that 
"no religious creed or profession should be prescribed in a 
political constitution," but in spite of his opposition every 



236 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

state when it drew up its constitution declared the Roman 
Catholic Church to be the established church, and outlawed 
all other creeds. It was not long, however, until the CathoHc 
Church began to give trouble in the newly organized republics, 
and in every country parties came into existence opposed to 
the church, or at least opposed to the con- 
Latif/^eriL'"^^ trol of the church in political affau-s. This 
party generally took the name of Liberal, 
while the church party was called the Conservative. The 
question of the taxation of church lands also became a serious 
problem, and when non-Catholics began to come into several 
of the republics the question of religious liberty also arose. 
These problems led to the passage of more liberal laws and to 
the recognition of other religious bodies until at the present 
time practical rehgious hberty is found in every country in 
Latin America. Peru and Bolivia were the last countries to 
gain religious liberty. The church fought these liberal tend- 
encies and the pope gave his aid, but the tendency in the 
direction of hberal ideas was too strong to be resisted, and 
such laws as the secularization of cemeteries, civil marriage, 
and the registration of births, as well as the recognition of the 
legality of other denominations besides the Catholic have been 
passed everywhere throughout Latin America. 

Church and state, however, are not separated in Latin 
America. Maintenance of public worship is generally recog- 
nized as a duty of the state, and each government contributes 
to the church for that purpose. In Peru the annual sum ap- 
propriated by the state for the support of the church ranges 
from $25,000 to $100,000, while in Chile and Argentina nearly 
a half million is contributed yearly. Besides these sums con- 
tributed by the central governments local 
Sf State * ^''"*'*' authorities make special contributions for 
special purposes, such as the upkeep of the 
church and the bishop's residence. In most instances the 
state makes appropriations for the support of church schools, 
and aids in the erection of churches. The church in Latin 
America, especially on the west coast, is a large property owner. 
The church property in Santiago is estimated as worth $100,- 



RACES AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA 237 

000,000 in gold, while in Ecuador one fourth of all the property 
in the country is held by the bishop, and of the population of 
the country ten per cent are priests, monks, or nuns. A recent 
traveler and student of Latin America observes, "The only 
hope for reforming the Church in these countries is the spur of 
Protestant competition" (Ross, p. 310). 

READING REFERENCES 

Among the best accounts of present-day conditions in Latin America 
is The Republics of South and Central America (1913), by C. Reginald 
Enock. Chapters I and XVI bear especially on social conditions. 

South America: Observations and Impressions, by James Bryce, contains 
a number of chapters descriptive of the people and general social condi- 
tions. 

South of Panama New York (1915), by E. H. Ross, is perhaps the best 
study of social conditions in Latin America in English. 

Latin America, by F. Garcia Calderon, contains one chapter on "The 
Problem of Race." 

South American Problems, by R. E. Speer, New York (1917), discusses 
religious and educational conditions, though with a somewhat Protestant 
bias. 

Latin America (1914), by George H. Blakeslee, contains several papers 
which bear upon the educational situation. 

The Literary History of Latin America (1916), by A. L. Coester (1916), 
gives the fullest account of Latin American Uterature in English. 

Latin America, by F. Garcia Calderon, also contains one chapter on 
literature. 

The pamphlets published by the Pan-American Union give brief ac- 
coimts of the press in the several Latin American countries, as well as 
much descriptive material relating to the countries and cities. 



CHAPTER XX 

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND INDUSTRIAL 
PROBLEMS 

Judged by the economic development of the United States, 
the Latin-American states are extremely backward. The peo- 
ple of Spanish and Portuguese races have never been noted 
for their industry. They have never developed a zeal for 
manufacturing, nor have they been noted for their trade. The 
Spaniard of the conquest despised the trader and depended 
upon the ignorant and downtrodden Indian 

Economic Antecedents n c i • i -i t 

to perform all oi his manual toil. In con- 
trast to the Spanish settler in South America was the typical 
North American. He was accustomed from the beginning to 
toil with his hands. He and his sons worked early and late, 
clearing the fields, sowing the grain, reaping the crops. The 
descendants of the Spanish and Portuguese conquerors, how- 
ever, have never used their hands in manual toil, and the 
attitude of the conquerors toward manual labor is still that of 
the dominant race. These different points of view in respect 
to toil help to explain the difference in the economic develop- 
ment of the two Americas. 

Another factor which has retarded the economic develop- 
ment of Latin America is the fact that there is practically no 
middle class among the population. It has generally been this 
class which has built up industry and trade throughout the 
world. The class coming nearest the middle class in America 
and Europe is the mestizo, yet he has not 
EconomfcaUy'*^^ reached that stage of development or intel- 

ligence which makes possible the direction of 
industry. Nor has he the capital. The upper classes live in 
the cities, generally situated along the coast, as they have 
always done, while the back country has been left undeveloped. 
Not until a middle class arises in Latin America will conditions 
in this respect undergo much change. Already in Argentina 

238 



ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 239 

a middle class has arisen, with the result that a better eco- 
nomic foundation has been established, which has been re- 
flected in the laws and the government. The same is true 
to a limited extent in Chile, Uruguay, southern Brazil, and 
Peru. 

Two other factors in the economic progress of Latin America 
are climate and geography. Both North and South America 
have broad bulges in the northern parts and taper to a point 
in the south, "but North America bulges in the temperate 
zone while South America bulges in the tropics." At least 
four fifths of South America is in the tropics, and it is undoubt- 
cumate and ^^^y *^^^ *^^* peoplcs Hving within the torrid 

Geography and Their zoue have not been noted for their economic 
conomic uence progress. The most progressive South Amer- 
ican states are those in the temperate zone, namely, Argentina, 
Chile, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. Nor has nature been 
kind to South America in its geography. Transportation has 
been made exceedingly difficult because of the Andes. Travel 
from coast to coast in North America is comparatively easy, 
but in South America there is one stretch of the Andes two 
thousand miles long, in which there is not a pass under twelve 
thousand feet. The Andes are also responsible for the coastal 
desert, which stretches for fifteen hundred miles throughout 
Peru and northern Chile. Still, again, nature has not been kind 
to South America in that she has no adequate deposits of coal. 
South America is a coal-importing country. Chile, the largest 
coal-producing district, imports half of its supply from Aus- 
tralia and the British Isles. 

In the matter of rivers South America has been better fa- 
vored. The Amazon and the La Plata are two wonderful sys- 
tems and are navigable for a much greater distance than the 
Mississippi. The Amazon, however, drains a tropical country, 

where there has been little economic advance, 
KdvMs^™^"'^^ and the same is also true of the Orinoco and 

largely so of the La Plata. There are some 
possibilities for water power on the western coast, but the need 
of water for irrigation there is so great that it is a question 
whether both can be adequately supplied. Undeveloped water 



240 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

power also exists on the eastern coast, but due to the absence 
of capital it has never been utilized. 

The three chief industries of Latin America are agriculture, 
cattle-raising, and mining. South America is one of the prin- 
cipal food-producing sections of the world, and for that reason 
is becoming increasingly important. In the production of 
sugar, cocoa, and coffee Latin America is preeminent, while 
such staples as wheat and meats are also produced in increas- 
ing quantities. Cotton, wool, rubber, and 
Producte'^"'^^" leather are also among the agricultural pro- 

ducts, while some of the largest untouched 
forests in the world are to be found here. The mineral wealth 
of Latin America is enormous, and although mining operations 
have been carried on for over four hundred years, they are not 
only not exhausted, but largely undeveloped. Iron deposits 
are found in Brazil, Chile, Peru, and Mexico; copper in Chile 
and Mexico; silver in Peru, Bolivia, and Mexico, and gold in 
the west-coast countries in the alluvial deposits. Cattle- 
raising is chiefly carried on in Argentina, Uruguay, and south- 
ern Brazil, while immense flocks of sheep are raised in southern 
Argentina, Chile, and Tierra del Fuego. 

Agriculture and Cattle-Raising 
The most advanced Latin American states are those in which 
agriculture forms the basis of wealth and prosperity. Argen- 
tina owes her advance to agriculture and stock-raising. In 
1908 the live-stock census showed there were in Argentina 
29,000,000 cattle, 67,000,000 sheep, 7,500,000 horses, 1,500,000 
hogs, and 4,250,000 mules. The value of the live-stock indus- 
try, together with the land, is calculated at 
four billion gold dollars. In agriculture Ar- 
gentina has made rapid advance. In 1895 there were 12,000,- 
000 acres under cultivation; in 1908, 45,000,000 acres. Of this 
15,000,000 was in wheat, 7,500,000 in com, 12,000,000 in alfalfa, 
1,500,000 in oats, 400,000 m flax, 187,000 in sugar cane, and 
300,000 in vines. The wheat yield in tons in 1908 was 5,250,- 
000 tons, or about 200,000,000 bushels. Of this about 140,000,- 
000 bushels was exported. The production of wool is also 



ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 241 

important, the 1908 value of wool exports being something 
over $45,000,000. 

Brazil is the greatest coffee-producing country in the world, 
and Sao Paulo the greatest center hi Brazil. In 1850 the yield 
of coffee was 103,000 bags, or about 14,000,000 pounds, while 
in 1910 the immense quantity of 1,626,310,000 pounds was 
raised. The average crop is about 12,000,000 bags. Besides 
being the greatest producer of coffee, Brazil in 1911 raised 
fifty per cent of the world's output of cocoa, 
of which 35,000 tons were exported. Sugar 
and cotton are also important crops. There are as many as 
sixty sugar mills in the vicinity of Pernambuco alone. The 
average output of sugar in recent years is about 350,000 tons. 
Rubber grows wild in Brazil, along the Amazon, and forms one 
of the important products, while in the southern part cattle- 
grazing is becoming increasingly productive. Other agricul- 
tural products, such as mandioca and Paraguayan tea, are 
raised in large quantities. 

In Uruguay, as in Argentina and Brazil, cattle and agricul- 
ture form the greatest source of wealth. The live-stock in- 
dustry, however, is the chief activity. An estimate of the 
number of live stock in Uruguay in 1910 was 
Uruguay 8,200,000 Cattle, 25,000,000 sheep, 500,000 

hogs, with thousands of horses, mules, and goats. In 1910 
there were nearly 900,000 cattle slaughtered. Uruguay has 
about 2,000,000 acres devoted to agriculture, and of the pro- 
ducts wheat leads, followed by corn, barley, oats, linseed, and 
bird seed. Tobacco culture has recently been introduced and 
promises favorable returns. 

In 1912 Chile cultivated over 2,000,000 acres of wheat, with an 
annual average yield of about 25,000,000 bushels. About half 
the people are engaged in agricultural pursuits, the value of the 
products amounting to $75,000,000. In the 
southern part of the country pastoral pur- 
suits are becoming more important. There are about 2,000,000 
sheep, 40,000 cattle, 25,000 horses, besides hogs, mules, and goats. 
Chilean wine has an excellent reputation, as has also honey. 

The chief crop cultivated in Paraguay is "yerbe mate," or 



242 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Paraguayan tea, a product peculiar to the country. It takes 
the place of tea and coffee among a considerable portion of the 
population of South America. Paraguay is very fertile, though 
as yet little developed. Com and mandioca form the principal 
food of the country, while cattle and hogs .are raised in con- 
siderable numbers. There is much possibility for fruit-raising 
also, for the orange grows abundantly, although as yet largely 
uncultivated. Agriculture is an important source of wealth in 
both Venezuela and Colombia. In Venezuela over 200,000 

acres are planted in coffee, especially in the 
pSSTvenezueia. northwestem section of the country. Cocoa 
Colombia, Guianas, and tobacco are important crops in both 
Ecuador*"^*' ^* Countries, as is also sugar. Rubber and 

cotton form another considerable portion of 
the wealth of these countries. Cocoa is one of the chief crops 
of Ecuador, where vast cocoa groves are found. Coffee is 
largely grown for domestic use, the annual crop being estimated 
at 7,000,000 pounds. Cattle breeding flourishes in Ecuador, 
Venezuela, and Colombia, and in the uplands sheep are raised 
for mutton and wool. Rubber yields about 1,000,000 pounds 
yearly, while the annual output of sugar amounts to some 
16,000,000 pounds. The leading crops of Peru are the result 
of irrigation and are sugar, cotton, and rice. The average 
annual crop of sugar is 150,000 tons. Peruvian cotton is 
raised also by irrigation, as many as five pickings being ob- 
tained from one planting. Alfalfa, quinin, and potatoes are 
important products, while cattle- and sheep-raising is carried 
on in the uplands. The principal agricultural products of the 
Guianas are sugar, cocoa, coffee, timber, and rum. In Bolivia 
rubber is the principal agricultural product, while cocoa and 
coffee are cultivated in the departments of La Paz and Cocha- 
bamba. Cattle, sheep, and llamas are abundantly raised both 
for food and hides. 

The annual value of the agricultural products of Mexico 
exceeds $200,000,000. The great food crop is Indian com and 
is cultivated in every state. Mexico was the original home of 
Indian corn. Sugar, cocoa, coffee, and tobacco are other im- 
portant crops. Sugar culture is confined to the tropical regions 



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ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 243 

and totals more than 250,000 tons a year. Mexico has four other 
remarkable crops : the agave Americana, known generally as the 
century plant, from which the native drink, pulque, is made; the 
chicle, from whose sap comes chewing gum; the guayule, a 
shrub which grows in the waste places of Mexico, which is one of 
the most productive of rubber-producing plants; and henequen. 

The export of guayule in 1912 amounted to 
fS^ce^iilTeSr 4,130 tons, valued at $4,967,560. The agri- 

cultural resources of Central America are 
abundant. Coffee-raising in Costa Rica and Nicaragua is an 
important industry. In Guatemala corn is the chief food crop, 
while coffee and cotton are two of the chief crops raised for 
export. Fruit culture is becoming increasingly important for 
the Central American states, and the export of bananas is 
especially large in Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nicaragua. 
The great natural product of Salvador is the balsam tree. 
About 130,000 pounds of balsam are exported annually. It is 
used in surgery for its antiseptic qualities. In Honduras and 
Panama the growing of bananas for export is the most im- 
portant industry, though coffee, cocoa, rubber, and sugar are 
raised in increasing quantities. 

The chief sources of the agricultural wealth of Cuba are 
sugar, tobacco, coffee, cocoanuts, and cocoa, though such crops 
as rice, com, and fruits, such as the pineapple, citrus fruit, 
and oranges, are also produced in abundance. Cocoa, cotton, 

and sugar are likewise the chief products of 
Agjc^toeincuba the island of Haiti. The sugar industry tn 

Cuba covers the greatest extent of territory 
and employs the greatest number of men. Cuba has long been 
famous for its tobacco, and millions of cigars and cigarettes 
are manufactured in the island. The coffee industry in Cuba 
has grown since the island became independent and in 1907 
reached a production of 6,595,700 pounds. Cocoanut-raising is 
very easy and profitable, while fruits and vegetables can be 
grown in the greatest abundance. 

Mining 
The principal source of wealth in Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Co- 



244 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

lombia, and Mexico is the mines. The chief form of mineral 
wealth in Chile is nitrate. The nitrate or saltpeter zone in 
Chile embraces the entire north end of the coimtry, 450 miles 
long. The nitrate is not fomid near the coast, but in a barren 
and waterless plain from 15 to 93 miles from the sea, at an 
altitude of from 3,600 to 13,000 feet. In 1912, 24,985,286 
quintals (quintal = 22.46 pounds) were exported, and "there is 
„ ,. . a visible supply of nitrate mineral, allowing 

^Me and Bolivia « . , ■ n i , 

tor mcreased consumption, tor at least the 
next fifty years." As has already been stated, Chile has the 
only coal fields in Latin America, though the supply is not 
large enough to meet the demands of the country. Bolivia 
produces almost all the known metals, which are both widely 
distributed and abundant. Bolivia produces one fourth of 
the tin of the world and this at present is the leading product 
of the republic. Bolivia produces about $350,000 worth of 
gold annually and $2,500,000 worth of silver, while the value 
of the tin output is about $10,000,000 annually. Coal and 
petroleum have recently been discovered in Bolivia. Bolivia 
is one of the three countries in the world producing bismuth. 

In Peru copper occupies the chief place among the mineral 
productions, while the total mineral output of the country is 
valued at about $25,000,000 annually. The output in pounds 
is 56,000,000 pounds of copper, 240,000 pounds of silver, 5,000,- 
000 pounds of lead, while some coal and petroleum and gold 
are also produced. "Mining is the most highly developed and 
best organized of Mexico's industries, the im- 

Psni &iid TyTftyico 

portance of which is shown by the fact that 
a recent estimate gives the amount of capital engaged as $647,- 
200,000. Of this amount $409,000,.000 was American, $87,200,- 
000 English, $10,000,000 French, and $29,400,000 Mexican." 
The leading mineral exports are silver, valued at $44,784,000; 
gold, $24,952,000; copper, $13,28^,000, with smaller amounts 
of lead antimony and zinc ore. Mexico is rapidly becoming 
one of the principal oil fields of the world. In 1910 one of the 
most remarkable oil wells ever found was opened in the state 
of Tampico. Jets of oil rose to a height of three hundred feet 
in the air and within twenty-four hours produced 103,000 




MINERALS 
OF 

SOUTH 
AMERICA 



ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 245 

barrels. In 1907 the output was 1,000,000 barrels; in 1909, 
2,488,000 barrels; in 1911, 12,629,000 barrels, and in 1912 
nearly 17,000,000 barrels. 

The mineral wealth of Colombia, Venezuela, and the Central 
American states is likewise considerable. In Colombia gold 
was mined in the early years of Spanish occupation, and these 
old Spanish mines still continue to produce. Colombia is also 
famous for its emerald mines, from which a million and a quar- 
coiombia, Venezuela, ^^^ ^f dollars' worth of emeralds have been 
and the Central sold annually for twenty years. Silver is 

encan es ^^qq found in quantities and deposits of coal, 

iron, copper, lead, and cinnabar are known to exist. In Vene- 
zuela are found copper, coal, iron, and sulphur. A deposit 
peculiar to the island of Trinidad and Venezuela is that of 
asphalt. In the state of Bermudez a lake of this mineral cov- 
ers a thousand acres, while in Trinidad there is a lake of pure 
asphalt a mile and a half across. This mineral is finding a 
wide use in street-paving, roofing, etc. The Central American 
states are also rich in minerals, such as gold, silver, copper, 
iron, lead and zinc. 

Land, Wages, and Labor 
One of the chief causes for the backward economic develop- 
ment of Latin America is the lack of an intelligent laboring 
class and the unequal distribution of land. Throughout Latin 
America much of the land is held in immense estates by the 
white population, many of them the descendants of the original 
conquistadores. The largest private estate in the world, the 
Terraza Hacienda, exists in Mexico in the state of Chihuahua. 
It contains 8,000,000 acres, and is 200 miles long and 145 miles 
wide. Chile is completely governed by the large landed pro- 
prietors. These haciendados hold large es- 

The Land Question ^ . . „ ^ . . , , 

tates m the province oi Santiago particularly, 
while other sections of the country have been sold in great 
plots to speculators or capitalists rather than to settlers. While 
the land situation is perhaps at its worst in Chile, yet in every 
Latin-American country the same condition, more or less, 
prevails. In Argentina single proprietors own as much as 



246 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

300,000 to 500,000 acres, while in the territories to the south 
are holdings of over 1,000,000 acres. In 1903 a new land law 
was passed in Argentina forbidding the aUenation of more than 
6,250 acres to a single person. In Mexico as many as a thou- 
sand peon families live on the estate of a single proprietor. 
Conditions in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and the other repubUcs 
are little better, and there are few small landholders anyw^here 
in Latin America. The vast majority of the people are abso- 
lutely landless. 

The proprietors of these vast estates seldom live upon them. 
In Chile the haciendados have country residences, where the 
family lives a few months in the year, but the owner and his 
family spend the greater part of the year in the town. The 
owners of plantations in Peru, Ecuador, or Colombia ride out 
from the towns to superintend their farms. The owner thus 
is compelled to leave much to his overseer, who robs him at 
every turn, and the soil receives poor attention. It has never 
been the custom in Latin America for landed proprietors to 
live on their estates, not even in colonial times. 

Another factor in the economic backwardness of Latin 
America is the condition of labor. Since the time of the con- 
quests the semicivilized Indians have labored for the ruling 
class. To all intents and purposes the Indian and half-breed 
in most of the Latin-American countries is practically a serf. 
In southern Colombia, for instance, the agricultural laborer 
works four days each week upon the land of the proprietor 
at from five to ten cents per day, in return for his patch 
and house. He nms in debt to his master for supplies, and 
since he is never able to work off the debt, he cannot leave 
the estate, and thus he becomes a serf for life. Much the 
... , . same system prevails in Ecuador, though 

Agricultural Labor ,. . ^ , , i i i 

conditions are somewhat better, the laborer 
receiving from twenty to forty cents per day, and an acre of 
ground to cultivate for himself. In Bolivia the laborer receives 
from two to four acres to cultivate, in return for which he gives 
from two to four days each week to the owner, for which he 
receives no other wages except his food. Debt slavery is not 
legal in Bolivia. In Chile the laborer receives from two to six 



ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 247 

acres for his own cultivation, and in addition wages varying 
from ten to fifteen cents a day. Independent laborers in Chile 
receive fifty cents a day. In Argentina a better condition pre- 
vails, the old feudal fetters which retard labor in the western 
countries of South America having been shaken off years ago, 
and it is not uncommon for a peon to acquire land and become 
a proprietor. In Mexico the peon is likewise a semiserf, the 
same conditions prevailing there which one meets in Colombia 
and Chile. The Mexican peon fives in a mud hut, without any 
pretensions to comfort, cooks his food outside, is clothed in 
cotton, and wears sandals. The peons constitute by far the 
most numerous class in Mexico. 

In the cotton- and sugar-growing regions of Brazil Negro 
labor is used, which is also true of the Guianas and Venezuela. 
It is stated that between 1825 and 1850 1,250,000 slaves were 
landed in Brazil, though slavery was abofished in 1888. The 
Brazilian Negro is easygoing, and he is usually content with 

just enough exertion to provide himself with 
A^^uiturai Labor in the rude necessities. After the abolition of 

slavery, in order to provide labor for the es- 
tates, Brazil began the poficy of establishing colonies for foreign 
immigrants, and a great wave set in, especially to the southern 
provinces. Into these coffee-growing states in southern Brazil 
Germans and Itafians came in considerable numbers, and in 
these states labor is almost entirely of this stock. This fact ac- 
counts for the progressiveness of this part of Brazil. The cattle 
industry is carried on by the Gauchos much as in Uruguay 

and Argentina. 

Trajstsportation 

The combined railroad mileage of Latin America in 1913 
was 65,330 miles. This included Central and South America 
and the islands of Cuba and Haiti. Argentina leads with 
20,300 miles; Mexico comes next with over 16,000 miles; Bra- 
zil ranks third with nearly 14,000 miles; Chile has over 5,000 

mUes; Cuba has 2,000, while the other states 
S£°^S^^^ ^ liave less than 2,000 miles each. Raih-oad 

construction has been slow especially on the 
west coast, because of the diiSiculties presented by the Andes. 



248 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



The scarcity of population is another factor delaying raikoad 
building, for only as population creates demands can roads 
be constructed. In Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina railroad 
building has been comparatively easy, but far different prob- 
lems are faced when railroad construction is attempted in Peru, 
Bolivia, Ecuador, or Colombia. 

The greatest railroad center in Latin America is Buenos 
Ayres. The first railroad in Argentina, a short line running 
westward from the capital, was opened to traffic in 1857. Since 
that time railroad development has gone steadily forward, 
imtil at the present time Argentina ranks tenth among the 
countries of the world in the length of her Unes. The railroads 
of Argentina may be divided into five systems: the Central 
Argentina, running northwestward to Tucuman; the great 
Southern, which serves the southern part of 
the province, with about 3,000 miles of line; 
the Buenos Ayres Western, with about 1,500 miles of track; 
the Central Cordoba, which includes the lines north of Tucu- 
man; and the Buenos Ayres and Pacific, which forms part of 
the transcontinental system. One of the unfortunate things 
about the railroads of South America is the different gauges. 
There are three gauges in Argentina, namely, the broad, the 
medium, and the narrow, which condition prevents the transfer 
of rolling stock from one line to another. British capital has 
largely been responsible for the building of these roads, the 
amount invested, being over $1,000,000,000. Every year rail- 
road construction goes forward, and in 1911 1,964 miles of 
new track were laid. 



Argentine Raikoads 



Yeara 


Length 


Capital 
Invested 


Passengers 


Freight 


Receipts 


Expenses 




Kilos 


Dollars gold 


Number 


Metric tons 


Dollars gold 


Dollars gold 


1865 


249 


5,379,898 


747,684 


71,571 


563,134 


438,961 


1870 


732 


18,835,703 


1,948,585 


274,501 


2,602,569 


1,356,262 


1880 


2,616 


62,964,486 


2,751,570 


772,717 


6,560,417 


3,072,185 


1890 


9,432 


321,102,691 


10,069,606 


5,420,782 


26,049,042 


17,585,406 


1900 


16,563 


531,398,720 


18,296,422 


12,659,831 


41,401,348 


23,732,754 


1905 


19,794 


627,230,616 


26,636,211 


22,409,995 


71,594,919 


39,396,094 


1909 


25,508 


898,913,000 


50,830,000 


31,955,000 


103,578,000 


62,272,000 


1912 


32,854 


1,120,210,000 


68,457,090 


33,640,206 


119,333,796 


75,680,837 



In 1914 the length of railroads in Brazil was 15,272 miles. 



ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 249 

These railroads were originally planned to bring the products 
of the interior to the nearest port, which resulted in the build- 
ing of five systems. Pemambuco was the focus of one system, 

Bahia of another, Rio de Janeiro of another, 
STu^^y^'^ Sao Paulo of a fourth, while Rio Grande de 

Sul in the extreme south was the terminus of 
a fifth system. In recent years the government has seen the 
necessity of connecting these various systems, part of which 
plan has already been carried out. Uruguay has 1,540 miles 
of road, operated by five companies. The roads in opera- 
tion are the Central Uruguay, the Midland Uruguay, the 
Uruguay East Coast, the Norte Railway, and the Puerta Sauce 
to Minuano. Montevideo is the great Uruguayan railroad 
center. 

Over 2,000 miles of Chilean railroad are owned by the gov- 
ernment, while private companies operate about as much more. 
The government railroad plan for Chile includes the building 
of a line reaching from north to south through the great central 
valley, where a large proportion of the population is to be 
found. Most of the short lines from the coast to the interior 
are private lines serving special interests. In 1910 the tunnel 
through the Andes was opened. Two other trans-Andean rail- 
roads are contemplated, one to cross the Andes some 300 miles 

north of Santiago, and the other some 400 
c^rcouSri^s^^'* miles to the south. Peruvian railroads are 

to a great extent owned by the government. 
In 1915 there were less than 2,000 miles of road in operation, 
though there were under construction or under survey some 
3,500 miles additional. The most important is the Central 
Railroad, which runs from Callao through Lima to Oroya, 
with connections with Cerro de Pasco road, which has its 
terminus at the largest copper mine in the world. Peruvian 
railroads are short, and railroad construction has had to over- 
come tremendous difficulties. The same is also true of Bolivia, 
where less than 1,000 miles are in operation. The chief Bolivian 
road is the line which runs from Antofagasta, Chile, to Oruro, 
where it connects with the Bolivia Railroad, which in turn 
connects with a road to the capital, La Paz. Ecuador has but 



250 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

375 miles of railroad, the greater part of this mileage being 
represented by the Guayaquil and Quito hne. 

Railroad development in Colombia and Venezuela has hardly 
begun. In Colombia the roads are mostly short lines running 
inland from coast ports, or connect inland places with the 

Magdalena River. The road connecting Bo- 
Sf^nezue^""""''" §0*^ with the Magdalena is 105 miles long 

and was completed in 1906. Venezuela has a 
railroad mileage of 542 miles (1913). These roads resemble 
those of Colombia, being short lines running in from ports. 
Around the capital there has been more development, and 
several of these short lines have connected their systems. 

Mexico ranks next to Argentina in railroad development. 
In 1913 there were some 16,000 miles of track. The govern- 
ment of Mexico has given encouragement to railroad construc- 
tion, and has acquired large holdings of shares in the various 
roads. The roads operated under the name the "National 
Railroads of Mexico" have a combined mileage of over 8,600 
miles. Among the roads of this corporation are the Mexican 

Central and the National Railroad of Mex- 
JSSSrRfiJ^o'at'' ico. The Mexican Central alone operates 

over 3,500 miles of track. There are several 
independent lines, among them being the Southern Pacific of 
Mexico, with 1,295 miles of track; the United Railways of 
Yucatan, with 503 miles, and the Mexican Northwestern. 
Since 1910 there has been but little railroad activity in Mexico. 
In the Central American states there are about 1,400 miles of 
track in operation. Guatemala leads with 487 miles, and 
Costa Rica comes second with 430 miles. Nicaragua and 
Honduras have about 170 miles each, while Salvador has about 
100 miles. Panama has about 200 miles, the railroad across 
the Isthmus being the most important. It is but 48 miles in 
length. Surveys have been made for other important hnes, 
one the Panama-David line, which is to be 361 miles in length. 
The Republic of Haiti has less than 100 miles of road, while 
in the Dominican repubUc there are about 150 miles, besides 
private lines on the large estates with a mileage of about 225 
miles. Cuba has a raih-oad mileage of over 2,200 miles. 



ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 251 

Besides the railroads the four great river systems of South 
America furnish many thousands of miles of navigable water- 
ways. In Colombia the Magdalena furnishes the chief means 
of transportation. The river is navigable for 560 miles from 
its mouth and there are other stretches of navigable waterways 
furnished by the larger tributaries. Steamship lines ply these 
waters, and although the goverimient has done little to im- 
prove the river, yet the traffic is most profitable, and river 
dues yield as much as $150,000 a year. Like Colombia, Vene- 
zuela is fortunate in having a great river to 
furnish transportation to the interior of the 
country. The Orinoco is navigable for large steamships to 
Ciudad Bolivar, a town situated 375 miles from its mouth. 
The main tributaries of the Orinoco are also navigable. The 
Amazon and its tributaries furnish 27,000 miles of navigable 
waters. Large ocean-going ships can go up the river 1,000 
miles to Manaos, while a United States gunboat steamed up 
the river 2,400 miles to the city of Iquitos, in eastern Peru. 
Small steamers can go up the river to within 350 miles of Lima, 
in Peru. The waterways of Peru, composed of the branches of 
the Amazon, have been estimated at a total length of 20,000 
miles, while in Bolivia both the headwaters of the La Plata 
system, including the Parana, the Uruguay, and the Paraguay 
Rivers, offer immense opportunities for internal navigation. 
Sea vessels can go up to 1,200 miles above Buenos Ayres, while 
smaller craft can ascend 2,350 miles into the interior. Uruguay 
has 700 miles of internal waterways, largely furnished by the 
La Plata and the Uruguay rivers. There are ten ports of the 
Uruguay open to interoceanic trade. When properly developed 
the South American rivers will afford boundless opportunities 
for communication with the rich interior of the continent. 

READING REFERENCES 

Perhaps the most available sources of information concerning the 
present economic situation in Latin America are the General Descriptive 
Pamphlets of the Pan-American Union. The pamphlet for each republic 
gives accounts of Products and Industries, Railways and Interior Water- 
ways, etc. 

Much information will also be found scattered through The Republics 



252 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

of South and Central America, by C. Reginald Enock. In this book there 
is no one chapter devoted to the economic conditions, but each country 
is discussed separately. 

South of Panama, by E. H. Ross, Chapter II, discusses the labor ques- 
tion in Latin America. 

A chapter on "Economic Problems" will also be found in Latin America, 
by F. Garcia Calderon. 

An instructive paper on "Some Economic Facts and Conclusions about 
South America," by S. O. Martin, may be foimd in Latin America (1913), 
edited by George H. Blakeslee (Clark University Addresses). 

Bryce, in his South America, makes some instructive comments on the 
economic conditions in Latin America. 



CHAPTER XXI 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND COMMERCE 

One might naturally suppose that the relations between the 
United States and Latin America would be intimate and close. 
All the republics belong to the New World and are detached 
from European politics: they all have the same form of govern- 
ment; all won their independence from European domination. 
The points of contrast, however, are much more numerous 

than the points in common. They differ in 
/S-s^^^A^erica i^^ce, rehgiou, language, and ideals. The 

Latin American has had a different history, 
as well as different climatic and physical surroundings. Mr. 
Bryce says, "The Teutonic Americans and the Spanish Amer- 
icans have nothing in common except two names, the name 
America and the name republican." While there seems to be 
little sympathy between the two Americas, yet the fact of 
juxtaposition has produced contact, and it is the purpose of 
this chapter to examine these occasions of contact. Let us 
first, however, pass in review Latin American relations with 
European states. 

Since the wars for independence the relation of the Latin- 
American republics with the mother countries has not been 
intimate. The Creoles, who were largely at the head of the 
revolutionary movements, hated the Spanish government, and 

this hatred was accentuated by the long 
^eSi^^wfrspain duration of the struggle. Then Spain also 

was distracted for many years after the wars, 
and there was little to induce the Latin Americans to establish 
intimate relations with her. One will find few instances of any 
manifestation of interest in Spanish history in Latin America. 
Mr. Bryce points out the almost entire absence of any monu- 
ments to any of the great Spanish conquerors, such as Cortes 
or Pizarro. There has also been little interest manifested in 

253 



254 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

Spanish art or literature. Until recent years there were very 
. . , , few direct relations between Italy and Latin 

Relations with Italy 

America. Although Italians compose a third 
of the population of Argentina, and are a considerable factor 
in the populations of Uruguay and Brazil, there is very little 
trade between ItaHan and South American ports, and practi- 
cally no mutual political or intellectual influence. 

For a number of years before the great European war, 
German relations with Latin America had been grooving with 
considerable rapidity. Of all the people of northern Europe 
the Germans have come out to South America in the greatest 
numbers. These German immigrants have formed large com- 
munities in southern Brazil, and have had influence also in 
Chile. In Chile they direct the education, and the army has 
been organized on the German model. If it had not been for 

the Monroe Doctrine, undoubtedly Germany 
^r;Sti!t^:riL would have had large colonial interest m 

South America. Germany has for a number 
of years condemned the Monroe Doctrine for the very evident 
reason that it stood in the way of her ambitions. The Ger- 
mans have continued to use the German language both in 
Brazil and Chile, and since Brazil has broken off diplomatic 
relations with Germany, the German colonists in the southern 
states have threatened revolt. The Germans have not invested 
largely in railroad construction, as have the British, but they 
have established steamship lines connecting German with 
Latin-American ports, and a great part of the commerce of 
several of the republics was in their hands. The Germans have 
taken considerable pains to learn the language of the people 
and to understand the people themselves. Aside, however, 
from the fact that the German army has served as the model 
for South American ministers to follow, Latin America has 
been little influenced by Germany. Germany has undoubtedly 
overestimated her influence in Latin America, as the conduct 
of her oflacials has clearly indicated. 

British influence in Latin America has been largely commer- 
cial and economic. The English are by far the heaviest inves- 
tors in South American railroads and other securities, while 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 255 

many Englishmen own ranches and farms, especially in Ar- 
gentina. Most Englishmen in Latin America are the represen- 
tatives of wealthy firms or corporations and they are therefore 
men of considerable education and have a 

Great Britain and j. j i (• i • ? ji i» 

Latin America S^^^* <^6al of money which they dispense 

with seeming liberality. Railroad builders 
are considered great benefactors in South America, and the 
position of the English has been helped by that fact. As far, 
however, as affecting the ideals and the intellectual life of the 
people, the English, like the Germans, have httle influence. 
The Latin Americans do not seem to consider the English in- 
terests in their countries as constituting a peril. They are 
willing to receive English help in developing their resources, 
but with Enghsh ways and ideals they have little in common. 

Of all European nations France has by far the largest in- 
fluence upon Latin America. Mr. Bryce traces this to sev- 
eral causes. First, there was the influence of the French 
Revolution and the literature produced by France, both during 
and after that epoch. Severed from Spain by the revolutions, 
the Latin Americans turned to France. The French language 
was already more familiar to them than any other foreign 
language, and during the colonial days French 
La^*^ A^icT*^^ ^ commerce supplied the colonists with most of 
their luxuries. French literature had a spe- 
cial attraction for the Latin Americans in that they both have 
a fondness for graceful, pointed, and rhetorical expression. "In 
short, they have an intellectual affinity for France, for the 
brightness of her ideas, the gaiety of her spirit, the finish of her 
literary methods, the quality of her sentiment." It is to Paris 
that wealthy South Americans, whether from Brazil, Argen- 
tina, or Venezuela, flock for their amusement or their education. 
French ideals and tastes dominate the Latin- American world of 
ideas. French commerce is likewise considerable, though less in 
volume than that of Great Britain, Germany, or the United 
States. 

The political relation of the United States to Latin America 
centers about the Monroe Doctrine. Our deafings with Mexico 
have been more frequent than with other countries, and they 



256 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

have not been such as to cause them to desire our approach. 
The Mexican War, begun and carried through for the purpose 
of territorial aggrandizement on the part of the United States, 
will not soon be forgotten or forgiven by the Mexican people. 
Relations of the ^he Gadsden purchase (1853) resulted in the 

United States with acquiring of a large strip of territory border- 
Meaco j^^ ^^ -^^^ Mexico, for the purpose of mak- 

ing easier the construction of a transcontinental railway, and 
although not exactly a voluntary cession, yet it left no hard 
feehng. Since that time until 1911 the relation of the Uniied 
States with Mexico has been cordial. At the close of the Amer- 
ican Civil War the United States rendered a great service to 
the Mexican repubhc in bringing about the withdrawal of 
French troops and freeing them from the danger of foreign 
domination. Under the rule of Diaz American investments in 
Mexico were encouraged and in the development of the mineral 
resources and railroad extension of the country American cap- 
ital played the chief part. 

With the overthrow of President Diaz in 1911, and with the 
revolutions which followed, the $1,000,000,000 of American in- 
vestments in Mejdco were endangered and much pressure was 
brought to bear upon President Taft to intervene. Mr. Taft 
refrained from taking that extreme step, but the army of the 
United States was sent to the border to insure neutrality. In 
the last days of President Taft's administration President 
Madero was assassinated by the agents of General Huerta, 
after which Huerta assumed the presidency. President Wilson, 
who now came into office, refused to recognize Huerta, although 
he had already been recognized by European states. Because 
of the irritation felt by the Huerta party at the stand of Pres- 
ident Wilson American sailors were arrested at Tampico, in 
April, 1914, by the soldiers of the Mexican president. Although 
Huerta disowned this act, the American ad- 
^f^'!!^„^*t'!!ff**°° miral demanded a further satisfaction in the 

in JVLezico in 1914 

salute of the American flag by Mexican guns. 
This was refused. Meanwhile many people in the United 
States were beginning to fret and chafe under the poKcy of 
"watchful waiting" maintained by President Wilson, and d^- 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 257 

mands for intervention became loud. At last President Wilson 
and Congress decided to send troops to Vera Cruz. Accord- 
ingly, a force was landed which resulted in the killing of several 
Americans and a more considerable number of Mexicans. At 
this juncture mediation was proposed by the three great powers 
of South America, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. This was 
accepted by the United States and Mexico, and representatives 
of the five republics met at Niagara Falls in Canada and de- 
cided on an arrangement by which Huerta was to resign and 
the United States was then to withdraw her troops. In 1915 
the United States recognized President Carranza as the pres- 
ident of Mexico. In 1916, Pancho Villa, a bold leader of a 
faction in Mexico, crossed the southern boundary of the United 
States, and a number of American citizens were shot, whereupon 
the government of the United States decided to send a division 
of troops to the border, under General Pershing, to punish Villa. 
Although this was not accomplished, the raids ceased. American 
troops are still on the border, but there have been no serious 
outbreaks to disturb the relations of the two republics further. 

The early relations of the United States to the Central 
American states have been largely due to the question of an 
interoceanic canal. When a dispute arose between Great 
Britain and Nicaragua over the possession of the Mosquito 
coast, the United States supported the claims of Nicaragua. 
After the discovery of gold in California the frequency of travel 
United States across the isthmus became much greater, and 

Relations with Central agitation both for a railroad and a canal 
^^®"*^ across the isthmus was begun. This resulted 

in the making of the first accurate surveys of the isthmus and 
the building of the Panama Railroad. This made necessary 
considerable negotiations with Nicaragua, but in 1901 the 
Nicaragua route was definitely abandoned and the Panama 
route chosen. After this, canal negotiations were carried on 
with Colombia, and later with the new repubhc of Panama, 
though a treaty was signed with Nicaragua in 1916 giving the 
United States an exclusive right to the Nicaragua route. 

On the decision of the United States to adopt the Panama 
route for an interoceanic canal, negotiations were at once 



258 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

begun with Colombia which resulted in what is known as the 
Hay-Herran treaty. At that time Colombia was torn by revo- 
lutionary movements which had begun in 1899. The treaty 
provided for the transfer to the United States on the part of 
Colombia of the rights of the French company which had be- 
come bankrupt in 1889. It provided also for the cession of a 
right of way for a canal, and a strip of territory five miles 
broad on each side of the canal, as well as 
Wegotia^^ ^* *^^ *^^ ports of Colon and Panama. In 
return the United States agreed to pay 
$10,000,000 down and after ten years an annual rental of 
$250,000. Besides, the United States agreed to pay for the 
number of shares held by Colombia in the French Company. 
This treaty was properly signed by the agents of both govern- 
ments, but the Colombian Congress refused to ratify on the 
ground that the treaty had been made while Colombia was in 
a state of war. The real reason, however, seems to have been 
the desire of the Colombian Congress to receive a larger money 
payment. 

Following the adjournment of the Colombian Congress a 
revolution broke out in Panama. This revolution was quite 
evidently fomented by persons interested in building the canal. 
American warships prevented Colombia from suppressing the 
revolt, and four days after the revolution began the United 
States recognized the independence of the 
p?n.^r^"*^°°^ new repubhc. The United States at once 
made an agreement with the new republic 
even more satisfactory than the previous unratified agreement 
with Colombia. Not only was a strip of land five miles broad 
on each side of the canal secured, but the right to fortify the 
canal was given, as well as additional naval stations within the 
republic. In return the United States agreed to pay Panama 
$10,000,000 down, and after nine years $250,000 each year. 
The constitution of Panama contains this clause: "The Gov- 
ernment of the United States of America may 
5;ScTp:L1? intervene anywhere in the Repubhc of Pan- 
ama for the establishment of constitutional 
peace and order if this should be disturbed, provided that by 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 259 

virtue of public treaty said nation should assume or have 
assumed to guarantee the independence and sovereignty of 
this republic." By this remarkable treaty agreement and by 
the constitutional grant of Panama the United States has 
practically gained a protectorate over Panama and a colony 
in the Canal Zone. 

With the establishment of United States interests in Central 
America through her ownership of the Panama Canal Zone, 
she has taken a much greater part in Central American affairs. 
The United States has felt the necessity of establishing stable 
governments in the republics near the canal, and for that reason 
has been almost constantly occupied since 1906 either mediat- 
Cnited states i^§ between the republics or directly inter- 

intervention in veuiug in their internal affairs. In 1906 

Presidents Roosevelt and Diaz mediated be- 
tween Guatemala, Salvador, and Honduras; in 1907 President 
Roosevelt arranged a peace conference in Washington of the 
five republics, which resulted in the signing of a compulsory 
arbitration agreement. Disturbed conditions continued in 
Nicaragua, and in 1909, after the overthrow of Zelaya, the 
United States negotiated a treaty with the Nicaraguan gov- 
ernment giving the United States the right of virtually control- 
ling the finances of the country. Again in 1912 United States 
troops were landed in Nicaragua, at the request of the Nicara- 
gua government, to quell a revolution. In 1913 a revolution 
occurred in Honduras in which the United States again inter- 
vened and a treaty, similar to that made with Nicaragua, was 
negotiated, but failed of ratification. 

The United States's dealing with Cuba, Haiti, and Porto 
Rico has important bearing upon Latin-American sentiment 
toward North Americans. Throughout the whole nineteenth 
century Cuba was the object of particular interest to the United 
States. Jefferson desired it and John Quincy AdcLins believed 
it would eventually become a part of the American Union. 
Clay and Webster were fearful lest it become the possession of 
some other nation than Spain and after the agitation for the 
increase of slave territory the South became more insistent for 
its annexation. Cuban annexation was attempted on various 



260 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

occasions. The Civil War, however, put a stop to these efforts 

and American interest in the island became 
^d Sa ** ^***^^ largely commercial. Soon after the Civil 

War a revolution broke out in Cuba (1868- 
1878), characterized by the destruction of life and property. 
President Grant threatened intervention, but peace was finally 
restored after Spain had promised various reforms. These 
promises were not carried out, however, and Spain continued 
her old policy of exploitation and misrule. In 1895 another 
revolution was begun by the Cubans, due to the same old 
causes. The Spanish-bom enjoyed all the privileges, held the 
offices, and reaped the profits, while race discrimination and 
favoritism were everywhere practiced. Spain tried in vain to 
put an end to the revolution and sent over some 200,000 troops. 
But the war dragged on without any prospect of subduing 
the island. 

Meanwhile the sympathies of the people of the United States 
for the Cubans was aroused by the policy of General Weyler 
in gathering the inhabitants of the island into concentration 
camps, where they were subjected to intense suffering. As a 
result American filibustering expeditions became numerous and 
supplies were sent to the Cuban rebels. The American Con- 
gress discussed conditions in Cuba and many of the members 
were strongly in favor of intervention. The matter was brought 
to a crisis on February 15, 1898, by the destruction of the 
battleship Maine in the harbor of Habana. The American 
press at .once accused the Spanish authorities of sinking the 

ship. Negotiations continued until April 21, 
cuba^**^^^'^**^'^* °* when war was declared between Spain and 

the United States. The war continued until 
August, 1898. Every engagement, both naval and military, 
was in favor of the United States. Cuba and Porto Rico were 
captured as well as the Philippines, and two Spanish fleets 
were destroyed. At the opening of the war Congress declared 
that its object was to free Cuba from Spain and not to annex 
the island. At the close of the war, however, the American 
army remained in Cuba to clean up the island. The Cubans 
were allowed to hold a constitutional convention, and a con- 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 261 

stitution, almost an exact copy of that of the United States, 
was the result. Before a government was established the 
American Congress, however, passed what was known as the 
Piatt amendment, limiting the independence of Cuba. It 
provided, first, that Cuba must make no treaty with a foreign 
power giving it lodgment in the island or impairing its own 
independence; second, certain regulations concerning its public 
debt were laid down; and third, the United States was given 
the right to intervene to preserve Cuban independence and to 
assure good government. The Cuban republic began its career 
in 1902 under President Palma. On his second election, in 
1906, there was a revolution. The United States intervened 
and remained in the island until peace was restored under 
President Gomez, in 1909. 

By the treaty of Paris, which closed the Spanish-American 
Porto Rico Since the ^ar, Porto Rico became the property of the 
Spanish-American United States. It has since been governed 

" by Congress, though a considerable degree of 

self-government has been established in the island. 

Since it obtained its independence in 1821 the relations of 
the United States with the island of Haiti have not been such 
as to arouse suspicion on the part of the Latin-American states 
until recently. It is true that President Grant greatly desired 
the annexation of Haiti, and a treaty was drawn up with that 
end in view, but the American Senate refused its ratification. 
In recent years, however, our relations with 
^d s^to'nom^o *^^* island have been the occasion of Latin- 
American distrust. In 1904 the European 
creditors of the Republic of Santo Domingo were about to take 
steps to forcibly intervene, as they had threatened in 1902 in 
Venezuela. To avoid this. President Roosevelt took steps to 
bring about an agreement between Santo Domingo and her 
creditors. American officials were appointed to take charge 
of the customhouse in order to insure that payments be made 
to the creditors. In his message of December 6, 1904, President 
Roosevelt laid down the principle that in case of wrongdoing or 
incompetent government on the part of an American state the 
United States would be compelled to exercise an international 



262 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

police power. This seems to have reduced Santo Domingo to 
the position of a disguised protectorate, and by Latin Amer- 
icans this action of the United States has been regarded with 
suspicion. 

The relation of the United States with the South American 
states since their independence has been much less important 
than that with Mexico, the Central American states, or the 
islands. With four of the republics, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, 
and Uruguay, the United States has had practically no political 
dealings. In 1831 a slight difficulty with Argentina over the 
seizure of American fishing vessels resulted in the removal, by 
an American warship, of the Argentina colony on the Falkland 
Islands. This loss was followed, two years later, by the seizure 
of the islands by Great Britain. Argentina has claimed that 
her loss of these islands was due to the United States. Some 
difficulty with Paraguay over that republic's interference with 
the navigation of the Paraguay River was settled .in 1850 by 
the visit of an armed expedition. In 1893 

Political Relations . . iii ct->-i 

Between the United American warships m the harbor oi Rio de 

states and the South Janeiro almost came into conflict with Brazil- 
American Republics . .1 T, -T ri i 

lan warships, but as the Brazilian fleet was 
in the hands of rebel forces and was later overcome there was 
no break in the harmony between the two governments. With 
Chile American relations have not been so harmonious. Sec- 
retary Blaine, in 1881, attempted to mediate between Chile 
and Peru, with the result that Chile was angered. Ten years 
later, in the Chilean civil war, the American minister unwisely 
took the side of President Balmaceda, which greatly offended 
the victorious Congress. While the feeling against the United 
States was still strong American sailors were attacked by a 
Chilean mob in Valparaiso, which almost led the two nations 
into war. The United States sent an ultimatum, and Chile 
submitted. These incidents have continued to rankle, and the 
relations between Chile and the United States have not been 
as cordial as with the other large South American states. The 
relations between the United States and Colombia have al- 
ready been outlined above, in discussing the Panama Canal 
negotiations. Relations with Venezuela have been chiefly 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 263 

those which have grown out of the boundary dispute with 
Great Britain in 1895 and the dispute with Germany, Italy, 
and Great Britain, in 1902-1903, over their claims on Venezuela. 

The Monroe DocTRmE 
The attitude of the Latin-American states toward the Mon- 
roe Doctrine is a matter little understood by the people of the 
United States. From the date of its appearance in 1823 down 
to the present time the doctrine has met with practically uni- 
versal approval by the people of the United States, but they 
have not taken the trouble to find out how it 

How the People of • i i i i c i n i 

the United States has been received by the people oi the bouth 
Think of the Monroe qj. Central American states. The doctrine 
proclaims: (1) that the American continents 
are not subjects for future colonization by any European 
powers, and (2) that any interference for the purpose of con- 
trolling or oppressing the independent governments of America 
by European powers would be considered as a manifestation of 
an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. The 
people of the United States have been proud of this doctrine, 
for they have looked upon it as a means by which they have 
guarded liberty. It means to the average American that the 
United States has voluntarily taken upon herself the protection 
of democracy in the New World. Nor has the average Amer- 
ican looked upon the doctrine as a means of territorial aggran- 
dizement. To the Latin American, however, it has a far different 
meaning. 

The Monroe Doctrine now stands for much that was not 
imagined at the time of its announcement. Down to the 
The Monroe Doctrine Mcxican War it was not an offense to the 
Transformed into an Latin- American people; they regarded it as a 
Offensive Doctrine means for their protection, and were seem- 
ingly grateful for it. In those early years it was purely a de- 
fensive measure, but since those days it has undergone a great 
transformation. In recent years the United States has lost 
ground with the Latin-American peoples. This is especially 
true since the Venezuelan controversy and the ensuing proc- 
lamation of President Cleveland and Secretary Olney. 



264 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

For many years there had been a dispute between Great 
Britain and Venezuela over the boundary of British Guiana. 
Venezuela had attempted on a number of occasions to draw 
the United States into the controversy, but up to 1895 she 
had not been successful. By this time the question had be- 
come more acute, due to the discovery of gold in the disputed 
region. For this reason President Cleveland decided to handle 
the question, and declared that it was the duty of the United 
The Venezuelan States, Under the Monroe Doctrine, to insist 

Boundary Dispute ^^qj^ ^ judicial Settlement. On June 20, 

and Olney's Inter- x « / 

pretation erf the 1895, the American secretary of state, Mr. 

Monroe Doctrine Olney, Sent a dispatch to Great Britam set- 

ting forth President Cleveland's views. The message stated 
that "Any permanent union between a European and an Amer- 
ican state" is unnatural and inexpedient, and further on an- 
nounced that "to-day the United States is practically sovereign 
on this continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which 
it confines its interposition." These declarations were aston- 
ishing both to Great Britain and the South American states, 
and were at once disputed by Great Britain. President Cleve- 
land, however, insisted that Great Britain arbitrate, even 
threatening war. Great Britain finally consented to arbitrate 
and the incident was closed. 

The outcome of this controversy was a triumph for the United 
States,.and since that time "they have seldom let slip a chance to 
reiterate their behef in it" (the Monroe Doctrine) . This incident 
served also to bring the Monroe Doctrine much more prominently 
to the notice of the outside world. Again, in 1902, President 
Roosevelt asserted the principle of the doctrine in compelling 
Germany to arbitrate in another dispute with Venezuela. In- 
tervention in Latin-American affairs has be- 
^^Z^^Ztlln come more frequent. Through American 
intervention Panama was set apart from 
Colombia in 1903; Santo Domingo, as well as Guatemala and 
Honduras, have been taken under financial tutelage, while in 
1906 the Cuban revolution was suppressed by American arms. 
The recent revolution in Mexico resulted in the invasion of 
Mexican territory by American troops, and much suspicion 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 265 

and distrust was aroused, not only in Mexico, but among the 
other Latin-American states. Many American newspapers 
urged the permanent occupation of Mexico, and American 
capitalists, with investments in Mexico, likewise advocated 
the pacification of the country for their benefit. 

A Latin American recently began a discussion of what he 
termed "the North American peril" with these words: "To 
save themselves from Yankee imperialism the American de- 
mocracies would almost accept a German alliance or the aid of 
Japanese arms; everywhere the Americans of the North are 
feared." This brilliant writer sees in the United States two 
parties in respect to Latin America, one represented by Mr. 
Root, who in the Pan-American Conference at Rio de Janeiro 
in 1906 said: "We do not wish to win victories, we desire no 
territory but our own, nor a sovereignty more extensive than 
that which we desire to retain over ourselves. We consider 
that the independence and the equal rights of the smallest 
and weakest members of the family of nations deserves as 
How Latin Americans ^^^^ respect as thosc of the great empires." 
View the Monroe The Other party is represented by the im- 
perialistic declaration of Mr. Olney in 1895: 
"To-day the United States is practically sovereign on this 
continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it 
confines its interposition." The people of Chile, Argentina, 
Brazil, and Peru resent the idea of the Monroe Doctrine. They 
reahze that there ife shght danger of any European tyrant 
enslaving them, and they refuse to receive the protection of 
the United States where no protection is needed or wanted. 
The great newspapers of Latin America have almost unan- 
imously in recent years opposed the Monroe Doctrine. One 
of the leading papers of Peru had this to say in regard to the 
doctrine: "Respect for the political sovereignty and the com- 
mercial independence of Latin America, which the government 
of the United States sets forth so freely on every occasion, is 
not able to counteract nor to lessen the eloquence of deeds, 
and these are the deeds: tutelage over Cuba; abduction of 
Panama; the embargo on the customhouses of Santo Domingo; 
economic and military intervention in Central America; the 



266 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

'big stick/ dollar diplomacy, and the Lodge declaration/ 
This is a compact statement of Latin-American opinion of thfr 
Monroe Doctrine. 

In recent years there have arisen a number of advocates in 
the United States favoring the abandonment of the Monroe 
Doctrine as being a hindrance to the best relations between 
the two Americas. The chief supporter of this policy is Pro- 
fessor Hiram Bingham, of Yale University. The reasons he 
gives for abandoning the doctrine are as follows: (1) The 
original Monroe Doctrine has been disregarded on several 
occasions by the United States herself; (2) There is no longer 
any danger of any European power extending their system to 
this hemisphere; (3) The larger of the Latin- American states 
Shau the Monroe ^^^ ^^ longer infants and therefore resent 
Doctrine Be our interference in their affairs, and we 

Abandoned? ^^^j^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^.^^^^ without it; (4) Their 

friendship is worth having, and we cannot afford to treat 
them so as to estrange them; (5) The modern form which the 
Monroe Doctrine has taken, known as the "American police- 
man" idea, is not only liable to cost us the friendship of the 
Latin-American states, but also the friendship of the European 
states as well; (6) We should give up the Monroe Doctrine 
because the premises on which it was founded no longer 
exist. 

In the light of the revelations which were made during 
the Great War, relative to the operations and purposes of 
Germany in Latin America, it is quite probable that opposi- 
tion to the Monroe Doctrine, both in Latin America and in 
Effects of the *^^ United States, will be somewhat lessened. 

European War Upon That there has been danger from German 
the Monroe Doctrine ^mbitions in the westem hemisphere is now 
quite evident, and there would seem to be indications that the 
Latin-American states would be less resentful toward the 
United States and the Monroe Doctrine. There is no indica- 
tion whatever that the United States will abandon the Monroe 
Doctrine because of her participation in the European war; 
rather her defense of the principle of the doctrine will become 
even more tenacious. 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 267 

Pan-Americanism 

The idea that all the republics of the New World should 
draw closer together has become known as Pan-Americanism. 
This idea was first advanced by James G. Blaine when secre- 
tary of state in President Garfield's cabinet,* 
D^ed^"*^*"^" ^^^ ^^® again taken up by him when he 
became secretary of state in President Har- 
rison's Cabinet. In one sense this idea is an outgrowth of the 
Monroe Doctrine, while in another it is the abnegation of the 
doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine means something imposed 
upon Latin America, whether they want it or not. Pan- 
Americanism means the cooperation of all the republics in 
carrying out any policy affecting the two Americas. 

Secretary Blaine proposed a Pan-American Congress in 1881, 
but when he went out of oflSce after Garfield's death his Latin- 
American policy was dropped. The first Congress was held in 
The First Pan- 1889-1890, wheu Blaine returned to office 

American Congress, under Harrisou, and at this first Pan- 
1889-1890 American meeting Blaine played the chief 

role. Many delegates attended from Latin America. There 
was much speech-making, and altogether the Congress left a 
good impression and promoted better understanding between 
the various American states. Its chief accomplishment was 
the creation of the Bureau of American Republics, with head- 
quarters at Washington. This organization has continued its 
work until the present time, and has done much toward in- 
creasing American knowledge and interest in Latin America. 

A second Pan- American Congress met in the City of Mexico 
in 1901-1902. This conference accomplished little of im- 
portance. A third Congress was held in Rio de Janeiro in 
1906, which proved much more successful than either of its 
forerunners. Among the things accomplished was the reor- 
ganization of the Bureau of American Republics. The Bureau 
was given authority to correspond with the various American 



1 Bolivar, in a sense, was the originator of the Pan-American idea, and the first Pan- 
American Congress met at his call at Panama in 1826. To Henry Clay belongs the honor 
of being the first Pan-American in the United States. (See Chandler, Inter-American 
Acquaintances, Chapter IV, on the "Pan Americanism of Henry Clay.") 



268 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

governments, when it had certain matters to recommend, such 
as the ratification of treaties, and its action took on a semi- 
^ ^ . .^.. official stamp. Into its hands also was placed 

The Second and Third . .,.,.. . 

Pan-American Con- the responsibility 01 preparmg programs for 
gresses and the future Congresses, and its scope in a number 

Pan-Amencan Union « , ,. . . 

of other directions was considerably enlarged. 
Provision was also made for the securing of a building at 
Washington to house the Bureau. This has since been erected. 
The Bureau is now composed of a governing board consisting 
of the secretary of state of the United States and the diplomatic 
representatives in Washington of the other American republics. 
It publishes an official bulletin and descriptive pamphlets, has 
collected a large library, and has served in many ways to 
spread information. At the third Congress Mr. Root, the head 
of the American Cabinet, was the official representative from 
the United States. He made an excellent impression upon 
Latin Americans both by his bearing and speeches. 

A fourth Congress met in the city of Buenos Ayres in 1910, 
and a fifth was due to meet five years later, but owing to the 
breaking out of the present war the meeting has not yet been 
held. 

Those Americans who understand their southern neighbors 
best feel strongly that the United States cannot afford longer 
to disregard the opinion of the Latin-American states. The 
larger states, especially Argentina, Brazil, and 
ar^^oSoc'^e'* Chile, ought certauily to be taken mto the 
councils of the United States in determining 
Latin-American affairs. It has been wisely suggested that 
instead of keeping the Monroe Doctrine for the United States 
to enforce alone, it should become Pan-American in its scope. 
If the United States would share the responsibility which the 
Monroe Doctrine imposes upon her with the other republics, 
Latin-American criticism and distrust of the United States 
would likely disappear. That Pan-Americanism is gaining in 
the United States is evidenced by recent statements of Pres- 
ident Wilson. 

The Great War also had beneficial influence in strength- 
ening Pan-Americanism. Eight of the Latin republics 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 269 

made declarations of war against Germany, and declared 
their intention of standing with the United 
2d pl^lmericanism States on the issues before the world. This 
has helped to strengthen the ties binding 
the two Americas. Never has the United States been so 
desirous of the good opinion of Latin America, and this 
desire is being manifested in a greater effort to allay the sus- 
picion which Latin Americans have long felt toward their 
neighbor to the north. 

Commerce 

The two leading nations in Latin America, in the volume of 
their foreign trade, are Argentina and Brazil. Ranking next 
come Cuba, Mexico, and Chile, while Uruguay, Bolivia, Colom- 
bia, and Venezuela belong to a third group. 
Fo^gn'nade* Paraguay, Nicaragua, and Honduras with 

Ecuador have the least foreign trade. The 
total Latin American trade in 1913 was $2,874,529,054, and of 
this total 53 per cent was exports and 47 per cent imports. Of 
the countries interested in this trade Great Britain led with 
27 per cent; Germany came second with 18 per cent; the 
United States third with 17 per cent; France fourth with 9 
per cent. 

The United States holds first place in the export trade of all 

the republics bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and the Carib- 

bean Sea, except Guatemala. In Brazilian 

export trade the United States also holds 

first place. With the other South American states, however, 

the United States ranks after Great Britain. The United 

States and Great Britain share first rank among the foreign 

nations from which the Latin-American 

The Import Trade . » , . . 

states receive most oi then- imported goods. 
The United States surpasses Great Britain in the import trade 
of all the republics of North America, and in none of the re- 
publics of South America except Colombia and Venezuela. 

The effect of the Great War upon Latin-American trade 
has been marked. Previous to 1914 Germany had gained a 
large share of South and Central American commerce, and in 
sevCTal of the republics took rank after Great Britain in the 



270 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

volume of trade. The war completely cut off this German 
trade; with the result that much of it came to the United 
Effects of the Great ^tates. In 1913 the Latin-American exports 
War Upon Latin- were distributed as follows: 31.09 per cent to 

American Trade ^^^ iQ^^j^g^ g^g^^^g. 29.2? per Cent tO Great 

Britain; and all other countries 39.65 per cent. In 1916 the 
United States had 45.35 per cent of the export trade, Great 
Britain had increased slightly over 1913, while the exports to 
other countries had fallen to 25.05 per cent. Even a greater 
increase is noted in the volume of Latin-American import 
trade. In 1913 the United States sent 24.79 per cent of the 
total imports into Latin America, while in 1916 the United 
States' share of the Latin- American import trade was 51.17 
per cent. In 1913 Great Britain and France, combined, had 
32.07 per cent of the import trade, but in 1916 their share 
had fallen to 22.87 per cent. The share of all other countries fell 
during the same years from 43.14 per cent to 25.96 per cent. 

The effect of the opening of the Panama Canal upon commer- 
cial relations with Latin America can only be determined by 
the future. It has not yet been in operation long enough to 
Probable Effect of ^^^^ approximate its influence. Then the 
the Panama Canal fact that Its Opening took placc since the 
Upon Commerce European war began makes impossible an es- 

timate of its influence during normal times. That its influence 
has been overestimated is probably true. It will decrease by 
three thousand miles the distance from the Pacific ports of 
South America to the southern and eastern ports of the United 
States, which will cheapen such products as phosphates and 
Bolivian tin. It will not, however, decrease in the least the 
distance between the Atlantic ports of South America and the 
eastern ports of the United States. 

Latin-American products are needed as never before. The 
world is hungry and Latin America is rich in food. Wheat 
and meats, coffee and cocoa are staple products which the 
world demands. Her hides and rubber, besides her vast 
supply of minerals — copper, tin, lead, phosphates, oil — all 
will be needed in the period of reconstruction. It looks very 
much as though Latin America's time had come. Political 



LATIN AMERICAN 

EXPORTS 



1913andI916 



1913 



1916 




'K. 9^ S^ i'^ i*^ <^^ H** I* ^^ SC' 
a^ So §*• s*^ 5w Htf" s^o" ^jj? ^ «L' s« 

11 il II Is Is I II I a il 



PAifAlninfijiY cyr/oir 



LATIN AMERICAN 

IMPORTS 
1913 and 1916 

1013 1916 



ri,.30o,o<xiooo. 



l,SOO,0(XiOOO. ^ 



J.,2(?0j000,000. ^ 



Xooaooo,0<x> 



900,000.000. 



300.000,000. 



roo.ooo.ooo. 



600,000.000. 



SOOjOOO.OOO. 



400.000,000. 



joa.ooo.ooo. 



zoo.ooo.ooo. 



zoo.oao,ooo 







9) ^s: 






\^^ ^^^ ss^ ^^-^ ^^, ^w 3^ 

ii? 1^ i^ p p s^ i?« 

1^ ^>, S^ §^ ^H ^«^ ^xl 



'Ay/Uf£iwi^A^ta/'M>^ 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 271 

stability is on the increase, financial responsibility is assured, 

while the relations between the two Americas are becoming 

more and more cordial. Economically Latin America is bound 

to progress more in the next fifty years than in the previous 

four hundred. 

READING REFERENCES 

Relations of Latin America with Europe 
South America, Observations and Impressions, by James Bryce, Chapter 
XIV. The Republics of South and Central Arnica, by C. Reginald Enock. 

Relations of Latin America with the United States 
The United States as a World Power, by A. C. Cooledge (1908). Diplo- 
matic Relations of the United States and Spanish America, by J. H. Latane 
(1903). America as a World Power, by J. H.hsitajie. American Diplomacy, 
by C. R. Fish (1915), Chapters XXIX, XXX. Latin America, by George 
H. Blakeslee (1913), Chapters XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII. American 
Academy of Political and Social Science (1915-1916). The Two Americas, 
by Rafael Reyes (1914). Life of John Hay, by H. R. Thayer (1915). 
Vol. II, Chapter XXIX. 

The Monroe Doctrine 
The United States as a World Power, by A. C. Cooledge. America as a 
World Power, by J. H. Latane (1907), Chapter XV. The Monroe Doctrine 
an Obsolete Shibboleth, by Hiram Bingham (1913). The Monroe Doctrine, 
by A. B. Hart (1916). Latin America, by George H. Blakeslee, Chapters 
IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV. American Diplomacy, by C. R. Fish, XVIL 
XXIII, XXVII. American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 
XIV, July, 1914, contains a series of papers on the Monroe Doctrine. 

Pan-Americanism 
"The Pan-American Conference," North American Review, 1890, pp. 354- 
367, 407-421. The Pan-American Union, by John Barrett (1911). Inter- 
American Acquaintances, by C. L. Chandler. American Academy of Politieal 
and Social Science, Vol. XIV, pp. 1-4. Publications of the Pan-American 
Union. 

The Panama Canal 

The United States as a World Power, by A. C. Cooledge. America as a 
World Power, by J. H. Latane, Chapter XII. Latin America, by George 
H. Blakeslee, Chapter XVIII. American Academy, Vol. XIV, July, 1914, 
pp. 84-91. Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, by M. W. Williams (1916). 

Commerce 
General Descriptive Pamphlets, Pan-American Union. Republics of South 
and Central America, by C. Reginald Enock. Latin America, by George H. 
Blakeslee, Chapters XV, XVI, XVIL Latin America, by W. R. Shepherd, 
Chapter XIV. Caribbean Interests of the United States, by C. L. Jones 
(1916); Sovih and Central American Trade, by A. H. Verrill (1914). 



CHAPTER XXII 

LATIN AMERICA DURING AND AFTER THE 
GREAT WAR 

On the entrance of the United States into the World War 
on April 16, 1917, the hope was quite generally expressed both 
in the United States and in Europe that many, if not all, of 
the South and Central American states would follow the 
example of their great neighbor. Indeed, President Wilson, in 
his announcement of the severing of diplomatic relations be- 
tween the United States and Germany, two months before the 
declaration of war, expressed the hope that the remaining 
neutral states would do likewise. He undoubtedly referred 
here to the republics of Latin America. This expectation, on 
the whole, was reasonably fulfilled. Of the twenty states in 
Latin America eight eventually declared war with Germany; 
five broke diplomatic relations, while the remaining seven re- 
mained neutral.^ 

The most important Latin American state at war with Ger- 
many was Brazil. Sentiment in Brazil, especially among the 
educated classes, was from the first overwhelmingly pro-Ally, 
and as the war progressed this sentiment rapidly increased, 
particularly after the German violation of Belgium. This pro- 
Ally feeling in Brazil was soon crystallized into an organiza- 
tion called the Brazilian League for the Allies, at the head of 
which was one of the most distinguished of modern Brazilians, 
Ruy Barbosa. This organization was from the first active in 
raising fund for the French and Brazilian Red Cross, and in 
Brazil strongly Strengthening the cultural bonds between 

Pro-Ally from the Brazil and the Allies, and especially France. 
^*'^* Hostilities in Europe greatly disturbed Bra- 

zil's economic life; finances were soon in disorder, while trade 
was nearly paralyzed. It was Germany's submarine warfare 



» Most of the facts pertaining to Latin America and the War I have drawn from Pro- 
feesor Percy A. Martin's Latin America and the War (World Peace Foundation). 

272 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 273 

which finally drove Brazil into active hostility to Germany. 
Brazil has the largest merchant marine of any of the Latin 
American states, and the war conditions soon led Brazilian 
ships to maintain regular communications with Europe, thus 
exposing them to the danger of the imdersea warfare which 
Germany had begun. As early as May 1, 1915, a BraziUan 
ship had been sunk by a German submarine while a second 
Brazilian merchantman was sent to the bottom in April, 1917. 

Among the other influences which led Brazil into the Great 
War was the entrance of Portugal in 1916. Portugal's declara- 
tion of war against Germany was received with great enthu- 
siasm in Brazil, while the clumsy German agents and spies and 
their activities added to the flame. The breaking of the rela- 
tions between the United States and Germany also greatly 
stirred BraziUan public opinion, and when in April, 1917, the 
second Brazilian ship was sunk, Brazil was ready to cast in her 
lot with the enemies of Germany, and on April 11, 1917, the 
German minister was given his passports. In the May fol- 
lowing. President Braz, in his message to Congress, suggested 
that "the Brazilian nation, through its legislative organ, . . . 
adopt the attitude that one of the belligerents (the United 
States) forms an integral part of the American continent, and 
that to this belligerent we are bound by 
Diplomatic Relations traditional friendship and by a similarity of 
With Germany, political opiuion in the defense of the vital 

interests of America and the principles ac- 
cepted by international law." The next move was the seizure 
of forty-six German ships in Brazilian harbors, and the revok- 
ing of technical neutrality. President Wilson on learning of 
Brazil's action iromediately telegraphed, "I am sure I speak 
in the name of my fellow countrymen when I express my warm 
admiration for this act, and the hope that it is the forerunner 
of the attitude to be assumed by the rest of the American 
states." President Braz replied, and in his closing sentence 
stated, "More than any external manifestations, no occasion 
could so unite the hearts of Brazil and the United States as the 
present period of uncertainty and struggle." 

The final break with Germany did not come, however, until 



274 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

October 26, after word had been received that two more Brazil- 
ian ships had been sent to the bottom by German submarines. 
On the above date the resolution declaring a "state of war 
initiated by the German Empire against Brazil" was adopted 
by a unanimous vote in the Senate and by 149 to 1 in the 
Chamber of Deputies. 

Soon after Brazil's declaration of war the Congress author- 
ized the President to increase the size and the efficiency of the 
army, and a mission was sent to the United States to arrange 
military cooperation and to purchase military supplies. It is 
very probable that if the war had lasted another year Brazil 
would have sent a considerable military force to western 

Europe. In December, 1917, Brazil dis- 
War*Measures patched a war fleet to cooperate with the 

allied forces under the British admiralty. 
This fleet consisted of two scout cruisers and four destroyers. 
Later Brazil also sent to Europe a group of ten naval aviators 
as well as a considerable number of Red Cross units and phy- 
sicians. 

Perhaps the greatest service rendered by Brazil to the cause 
of the Allies was in supplying food. Effort was made to in- 
crease the nation's food output, which was extremely success- 
ful in greatly enlarging the planted areas, while the minister of 
agriculture supplied large quantities of seeds. Brazil's exports 

of food increased in a most phenomenal way. 
SrSe to the Ames The export of beans, which in 1915 amounted 

to but little more than $24,000, was increased 
to $10,000,000 in 1917; sugar exports rose from $3,000,000 in 
1915 to $17,000,000 in 1917, while beef increased during the 
same period from $1,500,000 to $15,000,000. 

The other seven Latin American states which declared war 
upon Germany were Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, 
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, all small Caribbean states. 
Of these states Cuba's declaration was by far the most impor- 
tant. Naturally, Cuba followed the lead of the United States, 
and the day following the declaration of war by the United 
States, Cuba declared a state of war existing between the 
republic of Cuba and the German Empire. Immediately 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 275 

the Cuban Congress voted a bond issue of $30,000,000 for war 
expenses and in May, 1918, an annual credit of $2,400,000 was 
voted to be used for the benefit of war victims and a greater 
part of this sum was given to the Red Cross of the United 
States and the AlHes. The Cubans further showed their will- 
ingness to assist in every way possible by 
pLtin^heWar liberally subscribing to the United States 

Liberty loans. The four German steamships 
interned in Cuban waters were turned over to the United 
States, a military service bill was passed, while in October, 
1918, steps were taken to send over to France a military force 
of 15,000 men. Cubans took active interest in aviation, and 
at least two Cubans achieved distinction as members of the 
famous Lafayette Escadrille. Like Brazil, however, perhaps 
Cuba's best work during the war was in assisting the American 
food administration, particularly in exporting and in fixing the 
price of the entire Cuban sugar crop of 1918. 

Of the six Central American states, all except Salvador de- 
clared war against Germany. Panama and Guatemala both 
declared war in April, 1917; Panama on April 7, Guatemala on 
April 27. Panama was influenced by the necessity of protect- 
ing the canal, while Guatemala offered the United States her 
The Action of the territorial waters, her ports and railroads for 

Central American use in the commou defense. Honduras broke 
states and Haiti relations with Germany in May, 1917, and 

declared war in July, 1918. Nicaragua took the same steps on 
April 18 and May 8, 1917, respectively; Costa Rica on Septem- 
ber 21, 1917, and May 23, 1918. Haiti declared war July 12, 
1918. 

The five republics which broke relations with Germany, but 
did not declare war, were Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Uruguay, 
and the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic with- 
drew the German consular service in July, 1917, which was 
regarded as practically a declaration of war. The above four 
South American republics were sympathetic with the United 
States and the Allies from the first. Peru broke diplomatic 
relations February 5, 1917, and it is not improbable that if 
hostilities had continued Peru would have entered the war as 



276 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

an active ally of the United States. Ecuador broke relations 
December 17, 1917, while Bohvia handed the German minister 
his passports a few days after the United States declared a 
state of war existing. Of all the states breaking diplomatic 
The Action Taken by relations, Uruguay was perhaps the most 
the Dominican cordial to the United States. On June 16, 

Ecuador,' Bolivia, 1917, a decree was issued by the Uruguayian 

and Uruguay government proclaiming the "Government of 

Uruguay has proclaimed the principle of American solidarity 
as the criterion of its international policy" and further stated 
that "no American country, which in defense of its own rights 
should find itself in a state of war with nations of other conti- 
nents will be treated as a belligerent." This decree was followed 
in October by congressional action breaking diplomatic relations. 

The states of Latin America which remained neutral were 
Salvador, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Chile, 
and Mexico. Salvador maintained a benevolent neutrality 
toward the United States and the Allies; while Paraguay was 
but little affected by the war, as her position in the heart of 
the continent gave her little chance to come in contact with 
the German war methods. Colombia was undoubtedly in- 
fluenced in her position by resentment against the United 
States for her share in the formation of the 
Americ^anstates*" republic of Panama, while Venezuela was 
greatly influenced by the active German 
propaganda which was particularly effective among the gov- 
erning classes. The president of Venezuela suppressed two 
newspapers in August, 1917, which were favorable to the 
Allies and in other ways the government showed pro-German 
influences. 

Of the neutral states,^ Argentina, 'Chile, and Mexico are by 
far the most important and their neutrality deserves more 
attention. Undoubtedly, one of the chief influences which 
kept these three important Latin American states from either 
breaking diplomatic relations with Germany or declaring war 
was the attitude of the CathoHc clergy. The pro-German 
attitude of the Roman Catholic Church in Latin America is 
probably explained by the fact that the majority of priests 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 277 

and high church officials follow the lead of Spain in religious 
matters. The tendency to look to Spain in all things rehgious 
Pro-German Influence ^^ the Only exception to the rule that "France 
of the Latin American is Latin America's counselor in all things per- 
^'^^ taining to the spirit." But whatever may be 

the cause of pro-Germanism among the clergy, it is certain 
that the lower classes in all the Latin American states have 
been quite largely pro-Germanized by the clergy. This in- 
fluence was not only exerted in the countries which remained 
neutral, but it was everywhere exerted and was everywhere 
potent.^ 

There seems to have been little question but that the sym- 
pathies of the great mass of the people of Argentina were 
strongly favorable to the Allies. Working against this strong 
pro-Ally sjrmpathy, however, was an exceedingly active Ger- 
man propaganda. When the two most influential Argentine 
papers, La Prensa and La Naci6n, came out strongly for the 
Allies, a German organ made its appearance in Buenos Ayres, 
while a flood of illustrated periodicals was 
^eGr*2t Wm distributed broadcast over the country. For 

the benefit of the large Italian population a 
pro-German paper in excellent Italian was published. Still 
another pro-German influence in Argentina was that exerted 
by the German teachers who held numerous chairs in the 
Argentine imiversities. 

During the first years of the war Argentina gained great 
economic advantage because of the increased value of her 
staple products, which the Allies purchased in large quantities. 
German agents were also active in buying up raw materials for 
future deliveries. Argentina seemed little affected at first by 
Germany's submarine policy, though she seemed to approve 
the course of the United States in declaring war. Great ex- 
citement, however, was caused during the spring and summer 
of 1917 by the sinking of three Argentine ships by German 
submarines. The people demanded a declaration of war and 
the government sent some peremptory notes, which resulted 



^ Latin America and the War, by Frederick Bliss Luquiens, Century, October, 1918, 
pp. 859-864. 



278 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

in the seeming triumph of Argentina, for Germany agreed to 

allow indemnities for past losses and promised free passage of 

Argentine ships bearing foodstuffs. The real 

Argentine Neutrality r ,^- • ti ^- j_ • i 

nature of this seeming diplomatic triumph, 
however, was soon revealed by some intercepted dispatches, 
published by the Department of State of the United States, 
in September, 1917. These dispatches were between Count 
von Luxburg, charge d'affaires to Argentina, and the Berlin 
Foreign Office. In a dispatch dated May 19, 1917, Luxburg 
asks that two small Argentine ships be spared if possible, or 
else sunk without leaving a trace. A second dispatch of July 
3, 1917, calls the acting Minister of Foreign Affairs of Argen- 
tina a "notorious ass," who had demanded a promise from 
Berlin not to sink more Argentine ships. To this demand 
Luxburg recommended a refusal. A third dispatch shows like 
perfidy on the part of the Germans. 

Naturally, great resentment followed these disclosures. Lux- 
burg received his passports, while anti-German rioters set fire 
to the German club in Buenos Ayres and the offices of the 
pro-German paper were destroyed. The Congress voted to 
break diplomatic relations and it was assumed everjrwhere that 
The strange Action *^® president and his Cabinet would imme- 
of the Argentina diately take action against Germany. Pres- 

resident ident Irrigoyen, however, professed himself 

fully satisfied with Germany's explanation and announced that 
he would maintain strict neutrality. So far there has come 
no adequate explanation for the policy of the Argentine pres- 
ident, though it seems evident that his sympathies were with 
Germany rather than with the Allies. 

The neutrality of Chile caused little surprise. She was, of 

all the important Latin American powers, the furthest removed 

from the center of hostilities, while her economic life was only 

temporarily deranged. Chile from the beginning of the war 

was strongly pro-German, due to the fact 

Neute^tfo/chUe *^^* ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^*^ school system 
Chile had been greatly influenced by Ger- 
many. Then also there were unlimited German funds for carry- 
ing on German propaganda. From the very first this propaganda 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 279 

was successful, and soon a German newspaper organ was estab- 
lished in Santiago, and a Chilean-German League was organ- 
ized, both of which kept up a continuous agitation. The 
Chilean clergy openly espoused the cause of the Central Pow- 
ers, and exerted a strong influence over the humbler classes. 
There were certain pro-English and pro-Ally influences also 
present in Chile. One such influence was the Chilean navy, 
which had always followed English ideals, while the submarine 
warfare soon began to have its influence in gradually changing 
opinion. 

The most influential of the Chilean newspapers. El Mercurio, 
pubhshed both in Santiago and Valparaiso, had from the be- 
ginning of the war been inclined in sympathy toward the Allies. 
When the United States broke diplomatic relations with Ger- 
many this paper gave President Wilson's action whole-hearted 
support, while other papers expressed the 

L^^p^Zm^''^ ^^^^ ^^^^' W^eii finally Germany an- 
nounced her unrestricted submarine policy 
the Chilean government sent a vigorous reply, and as the war 
progressed the Chilean people more and more came to under- 
stand and appreciate the real issues at stake, and pro-Ally 
opinion came to be much more in evidence. 

Mexico had everything to gain by associating herself with the 
cause of the Allies. At least a policy of benevolent neutrality 
would have been much more to her advantage than the strange 
policy which was adopted. The reasons for the Mexican policy 
during the Great War are not yet clear. If she had severed 
relations with Germany, she would have enjoyed many finan- 
cial benefits and other privileges from which neutrals were 
barred. President Carranza has been accused of pro-German 
sympathies, especially after the publication of the now famous 
Zimmerman dispatches, in which Mexico is urged to attack the 
United States. Mexico had just come through her revolution, 
and the nation needed all its energies for reconstruction, but 
it would seem that the policy adopted by 
Great' Wm* ^'^^ President Carranza was not the one best 

suited to bring to Mexico what she most 
needed, which was the confidence and respect of the United 



280 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

States. President Carranza's proposal of February 11, 1917, 
that an embargo be placed on all supplies being sent to the 
belligerents, a policy which would have been disastrous to the 
Allies, is an example of the misguided attitude of the Carranza 
administration. The Mexican government, however, was at 
some pains to explain on several occasions that its policy was 
not dictated by hostility toward the United States, and as the 
war progressed the feeling between the United States and 
Mexico gradually improved. 

One of the events which greatly helped public opinion in 
Mexico to come over to the side of the Allies and the United 
States was the visit in 1918 of a group of Mexican newspaper 
men to the United States. Almost immediately there was a 
change in the tone of the Mexican press, though it must be 
said, however, that the leading journal of Mexico, El Universal, 
had from the first taken strong ground in favor of the cause of 
the Allies. The American ambassador like- 
to Mexfco"^"*"*^^^ ^^^ ^^^ Sood service in interpreting to the 
Mexicans American motives and ideals in 
the war. Another influence which in the end worked for the 
Allies was the bungling German propaganda, which as usual 
overshot the mark and a reaction eventually set in. 

The war had a very marked economic influence upon Latin 
America as a whole. Previous to the Great War the Latin 
American states acquiesced in their economic dependence 
upon Europe and the United States, but suddenly the out- 
side sources of government loans, manufactured articles, and 
foreign capital, upon which they had always depended, dried 
up. When Italy joined the Allies the stream of inamigration, 
supplying labor to the Atlantic states, stopped and for the 
first time these new states faced their own economic problems 
without hope of outside help. They must now provide their 
Economic Effects of ^wu labor, they must manage their own 
the War Upon finances. It stopped public borrowing and 

Latin America eucouraged private thrift. Imports dimin- 

ished, while at the same time the demand of the Allies for raw 
products soon produced a great expansion in the volume of the 
export trade. For the first time these debtor nations suddenly 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 281 

became creditors to Europe. Thus Brazil, Uruguay, Argen- 
tina, and Chile profited greatly by the increased demands of 
Europe for food, rubber, and raw products, while the great 
mineral-producing states, as Bolivia and Peru, supplied tin and 
copper, the latter probably the most valuable metal in the 
world. Another result of the war is the increased effort of 
Latin America to supply their own coal, to weave their own 
cotton, while Chile, for instance, has learned not to depend on 
the market for one commodity, phosphate, but is developing 
her other valuable deposits as never before. 

Another influence which has come out of the war is the in- 
creased effort to establish closer intercourse between the Latin 
American states themselves. The war forced these nations 
closer together. Pan-Americanism has become more than a 
mere catchword, for the war revealed these nations to one 
another. Already there is manifest a desire for greater co- 
operation, illustrated by the joint celebration of the five 
northern republics in honor of the great Liberator, Bolivar, 
and by the system for exchange professorships among the 
South American Universities recently arranged. New steam- 
ship lines have been established to connect Latin American 
ports, which ought to prove of immense value in this process 
of consolidation, for these states have had little to do with one 
other Influences another previously. Latin America has also 

Growing Out of the entered upon a new relationship both with 
^" Europe and the United States. The Ameri- 

can republics have emerged from the war with their prestige 
greatly increased and they have assumed new international 
responsibilities which cannot help but bring to them a new 
sense of pride. 

Eleven Latin American states were represented at the Peace 
Conference, as follows: Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Guate- 
mala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and Uru- 
Latin America at the g^^y. For the first time m history Latin 
Peace Conference, and America has taken her place in world affairs, 
the League of Nations rj.^^ ^j^^^^ ^^^^^^ mentioned above likewise 

became original members of the League of Nations, while 
the Argentine Republic, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Salva- 



282 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

dor, and Venezuela were invited to accede to the League 
Covenant. At the meeting of the Assembly of the League of 
Nations in 1920 the Argentine Republic delegation withdrew, 
however, on the failure of the Assembly to amend the method 
of choosing members of the League Council. The practical 
unanimity with which the Latin American states have entered 
the League of Nations has been pointed out as an indication 
of their desire to play a larger role in the affairs of the world, 
and perhaps also they have looked upon the League as a means 
by which they might escape from United States domination. 

Perhaps the most outstanding political event in the history 
of Latin America since the close of the Great War is the over- 
throw of President Carranza in Mexico and the substitution of 
the Obregon regime. President Carranza had made sweeping 
promises on his assumption of power and his overthrow was 
largely due to his failure to fulfill these promises. Another 
reason for his overthrow was his stubborn character and his 
too staunch nationalism, which led him to oppose foreign in- 
vestments and investors, while his stern economy, which 
brought the railroads and the schools to the verge of ruin, was 
greatly criticized by many others. The crisis in the opposition 
Causes for the Came when Carranza openly advocated the 

Overthrow of President election of Bonellias, a civilian, as his suc- 
carranza, 1920 cessor, instead of General Obregon, to whom, 

it seems, he had promised his support. This to the military 
leaders, Obregon, Gonzales, Aguilar, and others, smacked of the 
methods of the Diaz dynasty. The revolution began when 
Carranza sent federal troops into Sonora, Obregon's native 
state. This greatly aroused the wrath of the Sonora people, 
who were greatly attached to General Obregon and were pre- 
pared to support his claims, but had so far made no overt 
move. 

At this juncture the governor of Sonora, General de la 
Huerta, was appointed commander of the Obregon forces, 
while provision was made for a northern Congress which was 
to take over the government if the revolution should prove 
successful. Meanwhile Gonzales, another candidate for the 
presidency, organized a revolution in and around Mexico 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 283 

City, while Carranza's supporters fell away in large numbers. 
Soon Carranza was forced to flee from the capital, pursued by 
CatranzaCapt,ired ^^^ ^o^ces of Gonzales, and finally was sur- 
and Mtirdered, rounded and captured in the mountains east 

ay, 1920 ^£ Mexico City, only to be murdered by revo- 

lutionary forces soon afterward. Undoubtedly, the chief rea- 
son for the weakness of President Carranza's administration 
was his lack of tact and his domineering methods, for there is 
no doubt that he was an ardent patriot and was anxious for the 
welfare of Mexico. 

In June, 1920, General de la Huerta was chosen provisional 
president to hold office until the election of a constitutional 
president. The election was held on September 5 and resulted 
in the choice of General Obregon, who was inaugurated on 
November 30. President Obregon promises to inaugurate a 
more friendly policy toward the United States, though he 
holds out no special promises to foreign investors. The new 
president is popular with the mass of the Mexican people and 
has advocated various forward movements, chief among them 
being land and educational reforms. The 
^d nrsl-o^ cief ° revolution which brought President Obregon 
into power was not reactionary, but, rather, 
a continuation of the movement which overthrew President 
Diaz in 1911. In fact. President Obregon's program in its 
general outlines is practically that of President Carranza, 
stripped, however, of the latter's steam-roller methods. 

President Obregon proposes the passage of an agrarian law 
with the following features: (a) the expropriation of all un- 
utilized or crudely cultivated land and large rural estates, for 
which the government should pay a price equal to the listed 
value plus ten per cent; (6) the owner should be allowed to 
make formal objection within ten days, after which time the 
government should proceed to divide the seized land into plots 
of twelve and one half to fifty acres, an 
aSd irr^"'^ amount sufficient for the support of one fam- 
ily ; (c) the land is then to be sold upon appli- 
cation to any Mexican citizen owning less than fifty acres. 
Payment is to be made in twenty yearly payments at the price 



284 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

previously paid by the government, plus interest at five per cent. 
In case the purchaser fails to cultivate his land during an en- 
tire year it will revert to the state. In order to insure imme- 
diate and efficient working of the new law, all conflicting con- 
tracts, taxes, imposts, and other obUgations are to become 
void, and any attempt to evade or obstruct its action is pun- 
ishable with fine of from ten to forty per cent of the value of 
the land in question. At the present time ninety per cent of 
the possible agricultural land in Mexico is idle. This law is 
designed to meet this condition as well as to bring about a 
more equal distribution of the land. 

During and since the Great War a number of changes have 
taken place in the affairs of the Caribbean. Particularly has 
this been true in the island republics of Santo Domingo and 
Haiti. Civil war broke out in Santo Domingo in 1911, result- 
ing in the assassination of the president of that republic. Revo- 
lution followed revolution until in April, 1916, the president of 
Santo Domingo asked the United States marines to intervene. 
Intervention was successful in putting down the revolution, 
but when a new government was elected the United States 
refused to extend recognition until a treaty, practically making 
Santo Domingo a protectorate of the United States, was agreed 
upon. This the Dominican president and his Cabinet refused 
to sign, and accordingly the native government collapsed, 
since the revenues were under the control of United States 
United states officials. Military government over Santo 

Intervention in Domingo was proclaimed in November, 1916, 

Santo Domingo, 1916 ^^^ since that time a rear-admiral of the 
United States navy has been at the head of the government, 
while the Cabinet is made up of Americans from the navy 
and the marine corps. There has been considerable friction 
between the Americans and the natives, and popular liberties 
have been largely suppressed. The chief defects of the Amer- 
ican government of Santo Domingo are (1) the extreme arbi- 
trary nature of the military government, (2) the provost courts 
in which no counsel has been allowed accused persons, and 
(3) the censorship of the press, which, as usual in such matters, 
seems to have been quite senseless. 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 285 

Recent American relations with Haiti have followed much 
the same general lines as with Santo Domingo. In July, 1915, 
the government of Haiti was overthrown by a revolution 
which resulted in the murder of the president. A few days 
later an American cruiser arrived in Port-au-Prince, marines 
were landed, and gradually the whole country was occupied, 
while in the meantime the customs houses were taken over, 
the natives were disarmed, and all weapons seized. Unlike 
the Santo Domingo situation, the Haitian government re- 
mained intact, due to the fact that a treaty was ratified, pre- 
sented by the American legation, which practically reduced 
Haiti to the status of an American protectorate. The treaty 
provided for American assistance of Haiti in the development 
of her resources and in the reorganization of her finances, 
while a number of American experts, nominated by the Pres- 
United states Ident of the United States, are to direct the 

Intervention in finances, the police, and the sanitation. In 

Haiti, 1915 attempting to put the provisions of the 

treaty into operation a great deal of confusion has resulted. 
The ofl&cials of the native government, the American treaty 
officials, and the military have constantly conflicted, with the 
result that comparatively little has been accomplished since 
intervention. As in Santo Domingo, the mihtary ofiicials have 
often been tactless and arbitrary, while the methods pursued 
by the provost courts have aroused the resentment of the 
natives. 

Another change in the Caribbean during the World War was 
the purchase of the Danish West Indies, the Virgin Islands, by 
The Purchase of the ^^^ United States. The three prmcipal 
Virgin Islands by the islands are Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, and 
United states Saint John, with a total population of some 

thirty-five thousand, mostly blacks. The islands are not self- 
supporting and Httle has been done for the native popula- 
tion, though since the American occupation some schools have 
been organized and the United States Department of Agri- 
culture has already extended its activities to the islands. 

One of the first acts of President Harding's secretary of 
state, Mr. Hughes, was to notify the repubUcs of Costa Rica 



286 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

and Panama that the United States would mtervene unless 
they composed the dispute over their boundary. This threat- 
ened intervention is not based on the Monroe Doctrine, but on 
the treaty we have with Panama which allows us to use all 
necessary force in protecting the Panama canal. Recently the 
republic of Panama has shown considerable resentment over 
Central American the seizure by the United States of a small 

Poucy of the island at the Pacific end of the canal, which 

United states Largely . , , , » j. ^- j.^ it 

Determined by the IS to be used lor protectmg the canal. In 
Panama Canal spite of such protests, however, the fur- 

ther strengthening of canal fortifications will undoubtedly go 
forward. 

President Harding early in his administration has indicated 
that his policy toward Latin America is to be one of conciliation. 
The treaty with Colombia, which had been negotiated in 1914, 
providing for the payment to Colombia of $25,000,000, in 
compensation for her losses due to our Panama policy, was 
ratified by the United States Senate on April 20, 1921. Five 
days after his inauguration President Hard- 

The Ratification of the . '' ■, -, .-r^ ,- tc i , 

Colombian Treaty by mg recommeuded ratifacation as very help- 
theUnited states, f^j Q^t the present time in promoting our 
friendly relationships." Another reason for 
this change of front on the part of the American Senate in 
regard to the treaty is the fact that it will aid the United States 
in the world quest for oil. Without ratification the United 
States would stand a poor chance in competition with Great 
Britain in obtaining Colombian oil concessions. The purpose 
of the treaty as expressed in the preamble is "to restore the 
cordial friendship that formerly characterized the relations 
between the two countries and also to define and regulate their 
rights and interests in respect of the interoceanic canal which 
the United States has constructed across the Isthmus of 
Panama." Article I of the treaty provides for equal treat- 
ment of Colombian citizens and products in transportation 
through the canal and over the Panama railroad, to that given 
United States products and citizens; Article II provides for 
the pajmient by the United States to Colombia of $25,000,000 
in five payments of $5,000,000 each, while Article III requires 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 287 

that Colombia shall recognize the independence of Panama 
and defines the boundary between Panama and Colombia. 

It seems that the United States is in danger of losing a 
large share of the increased trade which has recently come to 
her. It is well known that the German agents remained in 
Latin America during the war and were busy buying up raw 
material for future deliveries. Since the war these agents and 
others have continued their activities, with the result that 
Germany is in a fair way to regain her pre- 

Present Trade ./ax 

situadon Between War position in the Latin American markets. 
Latin America and the High rates of exchange and threatened in- 
crease of tariffs have also served to turn 
South Americans from the United States to their old cus- 
tomers in Europe. In the meantime the United States has 
been making some effort to hold the Latin American trade. 
Under the Federal Reserve Act and a supplementary Act 
known as the Edge Act American banks are now allowed to 
establish branches in foreign countries. The Edge Act gives 
the United States for the first time in our history financial 
organizations for the express purpose of assisting foreign trade 
through long-time investments. The Edge Act permits the 
formation of these foreign investment banks under Federal 
charter and allows such corporations to issue their own notes 
and debentures for sale to investors. A number of large Amer- 
ican banking houses have availed themselves of these increased 
opportunities and have established branches in South and 
Central America. The National City Bank of New York and 
the Guaranty Trust Company of New York are two of the 
banks which have shown particular activity in increasing our 
foreign business. 

READING REFERENCES 

Latin America and the War 
The best summary of the relation of the Latin American states to the 
great war is Latin America and the War, by Percy Alvin Martin (League 
of Nations pamphlets, Vol. II, No. 4, World Peace Foundation). Other 
articles which will be useful are "Latin America and the War," by Fred- 
rick B. Luquiens {The Century, October, 1918); "Latin America and the 
War," by L. E. Elliott {The Pan American Magazine, November, 1917); 



288 A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 

The Times History of the War, London, 1918, Vol. XV, Chapter CCXXII 
(South America, 1914-1917). A summary of the economic effects of the 
Great War upon Latin America is South America and the War, by F. A. 
Kirkpatrick (Cambridge University Press, 1918). A later study of the 
economic effects of the war upon Peru is Early Effects of the War upon 
the Finance, Commerce, and Industry of Peru, by L. S. Rowe, Oxford Uni- 
versity Press, New York, 1920 (Carnegie Endowment for International 
Peace, Preliminary Economic Studies of the War No. 17). 

Recent Mexican Affairs 

A sympathetic study of President Carranza is Intervention in Mexico, 
by Samuel Guy Inman, New York, 1919: The Revolution of 1920 is 
described in The Latest Mexican Revolution, by Eugene E. RovUlain 
(Atlantic Monthly, October, 1920, pp. 563-572). The New York Nation 
for May 22, 1920, prints some of the correspondence which passed be- 
tween Carranza and Obregon; The Clark University Addresses for 1920, 
edited by George H. Blakeslee, New York, 1920, are devoted to Mexico 
and the Caribbean; several of these addresses are devoted to Recent Con- 
ditions; The New Mexican Government and the American Policy. The 
Nation for February 9, 1921, gives in detail the Land and School Reform 
bills which are proposed by President Obregon. A series of five articles 
devoted to Mexico by Paul Hanna appeared in The Nation (March 30 to 
April 27, 1921). 

The Caribbean 

The eight addresses in the Clark University Addresses for 1920, devoted 
to the affairs of the Caribbean, give an excellent review of the present 
situation from all angles; especially the address The Present Situation in 
the Caribbean, by Samuel Guy Inman; Present American Intervention in 
Santo Domingo, by Judge Otto Schoenrich; and American Achievements 
in Santo Domingo and Haiti, by Colonel George C. Thorpe; Central Amer- 
ican Republics and Their Problems, by W. E. Browning. A recent book is 
The United States and Latin America, by John H. Latane (New York, 
1920), especially Chapter VII, "The Advance of the United States in the 
Caribbean." 

Present-Day Trade Conditions 

A greatly increased interest in Latin American trade is indicated by 
the number of recent books devoted to the subject. Among such books 
are: Understanding South America, Clayton Sedgwick Cooper (New York, 
1918); South and Central American Trade Conditions of Today, by A. H. 
Verrill (New York, 1919); Exporting to Latin America, by Ernest B. 
Filsinger (New York, 1919) ; Commercial Travelers' Guide to Latin America 
(Miscellaneous Series, No. 89, 1920), (Biu-eau of Foreign and Domestic 
Commerce). A Geographical, Descriptive, Economic and Commercial 
survey is The States of South America, by Charles Domville-Fife, New 
York, 1920. 



DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT WAR 289 

Two of the larger American banking houses publish regular reports of 
trade and financial conditions, giving valuable information obtained from 
reliable sources. Two such publications are The Americas, published by 
the National City Bank of New York, and The Guaranty News, published 
by the Guaranty Trust Company of New York. In The Hispanic Na- 
tions of the New World, by William R. Shepherd (New Haven, 1919), 
there are chapters on recent happenings in Latin America and on Pan- 
Americanism and the Great War. 



INDEX 



Adelantado, 76, 98 

Of Peru, 66 
Administration, Spanish Colonial, 

94r-100 

Importance of, 94 

Place of Sovereigns in, 99 

Africa, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 32, 41, 84 
Capes of, 33 
Coast of, 34, 76 
South, 143 

Agriculture 
Agricultural colonies of Spain, 46, 
75-83; Aztec, 105; Brazilian, 
86; Early Spanish Agriculture 
in America, 105; Inca, 68, 69, 
105; Jesuit, 82; Later agricul- 
ture in the Colonies, 106; Mex- 
ican (colonial), 105; Present 
day, 240-243; Venezuelan, 77, 
148 

Alaric, 10 

Alaska, 21 

Alcalde, 66, 99 

Alexander VI, Pope, 37, 96 

Algarves, 32 

Alhambra, 35 

Allende, 170 

Allies, 272, 274 

Ahnagro, 65, 66, 70, 71, 73 

Almagro the Boy, 71 

Alps, 10 

Alvarado, 55, 62, 64 

Alverez, Diego, 85 

Amazon, River, 22-24, 86, 90, 109, 
251 

America (see also United States), 
16, 17, 18, 20, 43, 44 
Discovery of, 32, 46; Naming of, 
44 

American Revolution, 142 

Anconcagua, 23 

Andagoya, Pascual de, 65 

Andes, 22, 23, 27, 67 

Antigua Island, 39 

Antilles, Greater, 39; Lesser, 39 

Arabia, 11-12 

Aragon, 14, 16, 34, 36, 37 

Arawaks, 28 



Araucanians, 28-29, 74, 123 

Argentiua 
Agriculture in, 240-241; and the 
Great War, 276, 277, 278; CivU 
War in, 159; Creole party in, 
157; Declaration of Independ- 
ence, 159; Early years of inde- 
pendence, 189-190; Education 
in, 229, 230; Government of, 
216-217; Inamigration to, 225- 
226; Indians of, 28, 221; Junta 
organized, 156; Jimta Govern- 
ment, 157; Mestizos in, 224; 
Mitre, General President, 191; 
Population, 225; Provinces, 82; 
Railroads, 248; Recent history 
of, 192; Rivadavia, President, 
and his successors, 190; Roca, 
President, 192; Rosas, Juan 
Manuel de, 190-191; Sarmi- 
ento, President, 192; Urquiza, 
President, 190, 191 

Arians, 10 

Arista, 205 

Artigas, Jose, 160 

Asia, 37, 40, 43 

Asturians, 8, 146 

Asuncion, 81, 137; Founded, 80, 82 

Atahuallpa (The Inca), 68, 69, 70, 106 

Atlantic coast, 26, 64 

Audiencia 
Bogota, established, 78; Colonial, 
99; Spanish, 95 

Augustinian monks, 124, 125 

Ayacucho, Battle of, 163 

Aymaras, 29-30 

Aztecs, 27, 55, 62, 63 

Civilization of, 30-31, 58-68; 
Empire of, 57, 58; Govern- 
ment, Laws, and Religion of, 
59—60 

Azores, 33, 37, 38, 85 

B 

Bahama Island, 36, 76 
Bahia, 84, 85, 88, 228 
Balboa, 43, 51 

Discovers Pacific, 52-53, 65 
Bancroft, George, 102 



291 



292 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



Barcelona (Spain), 37; (Venezuela), 
77 

Basques, 8 

Bastidas, 42 

Belgrano, General, 157, 159 

Benalcazar, 78 

Berber, 11, 12 

Bio Bio, River, 24, 74 

Bobadilia, 40, 41, 47 

Bogota, 78, 136, 137, 146, 151, 153, 
228 

Bolivar, Simon, 150-151, 152 
Campaigns of, 151-156; Creates 
Republic of Colombia, 153- 
154; Estimate of, 177; in Peru, 
163; Last years, 176-177 

Bolivia 
Agriculture in, 242; and the Great 
War, 275, 276; Ballivan, Pres- 
ident, 186; Belzu, President of, 
186; Bolivar and, 186; Educa- 
tion in, 231; in Peru-Chilean 
War, 187; Indians of, 29, 221; 
Lakes of, 24; Mestizos of, 224; 
Mining in, 244; Mountains of, 
23; Population, 225; Railroads 
in, 249; Recent problems, 187; 
Republic established, 176, 186; 
Santa Cruz, President of, 186; 
Slavery abolished in, 186; 
Sucre, General, President of, 
186 

Bonaparte, Joseph, 145, 149, 156, 169 

Boves, 151 

Boyaca, Battle of, 153 

Boyle, Bernardo, 38, 47 

Braz, President, 273 

Brazil, 21, 22, 24, 38, 42 
Abolition of Slave trade in, 148; 
Agriculture in, 88, 241; and 
the Great War, 272-274; Bad 
government in, 91; Coast of, 
43, 88; Colonization of, 46; Dis- 
covery of, 84-85; Dutch in, 88, 
89; Education, 230; Eighteenth 
century, 92-93; English m, 88; 
French in, 88, 90-91; Immigra- 
tion to, 225-226; Independence 
of, 168; Indians of, 221; King- 
dom of, 166-167; Mestizos of, 
224; Movement toward Na- 
tionalism, 167; Negro popula- 
tion, 222, 224; Negro slaves, 
92, 198, 199; Pedro I, Reign of 
197; Pedro II, Reign of, 197 
198; Plantations in, 86, 88 
Population in 1800, 92, 127 



Population, present, 225; Re- 
public of, established, 199; 
Royal family in, 165-166; Sev- 
enteenth century, 90; Sixteenth 
century, 88; Topography of, 
23; Wars of, 197-198 

Brazil wood, 84 

British. (See English) 
In wars for Independence, 152- 
153 

Brown, William, 159 

Bryce, James, 140, 253, 255 

Buccaneers, 130 

Buenos Ayres (see also La Plata), 
24, 28, 82, 110, 156, 160, 228 
Captured by English, 143-144; 
Contraband trade of, 104, 138; 
Creoles of, 159; Foimded, 79- 
81; Junta of, 146; Population 
of, in 1800, 128; Viceroyalty 
of, 133, 138 

C 

Cabildos, 149 

Cabot, Sebastian, 79 

Cabral, 42, 84 

Cadiz, 38, 40, 41, 102, 104 

California, 131 

Canary Islands, 34, 36, 39 

Capac, Huayna, 68 

Cape Colony, 143 

Cape de la Vela, 50, 77 

Cape Horn, 22 

Captain General, 98-99 

Carabobo, Battle of, 153 

Caracas, 77, 135, 142, 146, 149, 150, 

151, 154, 228 
Caribs, 28 

Carranza, President, 279, 282, 283 
Carthagena, 50, 51, 77, 78, 146, 151 
Carthaginians, 8, 13 
Casa de Contratacion. (See Indian 

House) 
Castile, 14, 15, 16 

Crown of, 76; Institutions of, 94 
Castro, President (Venezuela), 179 
Castro, Vaca de, 71 
Catholic Faith, 10, 17, 18, 20 
Catholic Kmgs, 17, 36, 37, 40, 94, 

95, 96 
Cattle Industry, 106, 240-245 
Caxamarca, 69, 70 
Central America, 7, 21, 41, 98, 210- 

213 
Agriculture, 243; Buccaneers, 130; 

Colonization of, 46; Education 

in, 231; First Confederation of. 



INDEX 



293 



210; Geography of, 26-27; 
Great War, 275; Independence 
of, 173; Intervention in, by 
United States, 259; Later at- 
tempts at confederation, 211, 
213; Mining in, 245; Popula- 
tion of, 225; RaUroads, 250; 
States of, 129; United States 
and, 257; William Walker in, 
212 

Chacabuco, Battle of, 160 

Charcas (Bolivia), 138 

Charles III, King of Spain, 104, 130 

Charles V, Emperor, 66, 71, 75, 129 

Chibchas, 29, 30, 78 

Chile 

Agriculture, 241; and the Great 
War, 276, 278, 279; Audencia 
of, 136; Balmaceda, President, 
195-196; Bulnes, Manuel, Pres- 
ident of, 193; Civil War in 
(1891), 195-196; Colonial Gov- 
ernment of, 136; Conquest of, 
46, 73-74; Conservative con- 
trol in, 194; De Bravo, Don 
Melchor, Governor, 136; Edu- 
cation in, 230; Immigration to, 
225-226; Independence of, 160- 
161; Indians of, 73, 136, 221; 
Jimta organized, 158; Liberal 
control in, 194; Maipo, Battle 
of, 160; Mestizos of, 224; Min- 
ing in, 244; Montt, Manuel, 
President, 193; Nitrate of, 194; 
O'Higgins, Bernardo, 160, 193; 
Political history (1817-1830), 
193; Population in 1800, 127; 
Population, present, 225; Por- 
tales, 193; Prieto, President, 
193; Railroads of, 249; Recent 
history in, 196; San Martin 
in, 160; Santa Maria, Pres- 
ident, 195; Wars for independ- 
ence in, 158, 160-161; War 
with Peru, 194 

Christian states of Spain, 8, 15, 16 

Christian worship, 13, 20 

Christianity, introduced in Latin 
America, 234 

Cholula (Mexico), 60 

Church, The, 17 

In Latin American Society, 124- 
125; Property in the colonies, 
125; Relation to Indians, 121; 
Revenues of, in the colonies, 
115; Roman, 15; Tjrpes of work 
in Latin America, 124 



Cid, The, 15 

Cities, Latin American, 227-228 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 211 

Clergy, Pro-German, influence of, 
277 

Climate, Latin American, 24-25 
Economic influence of, 239 

Cochrane, Sir Thomas, 149, 161, 168 

Coligny, Admiral, 87 

Colombia, 21, 23, 24, 46, 77 
Agriculture in, 242; and the Great 
War, 276; Constitution of 1821, 
154; Created by Bolivar, 153; 
Education in, 231 ; Greater Co- 
lombia, 176; Intervention in, by 
United States, 264; Mestizos 
of, 224; Mining in, 245; Na- 
tives of, 29; Negroes in, 224; 
Population of, 225; Railroads 
in, 250; Revolutions in, 180- 
181; Since Independence, 179- 
181; Treaty with, ratified by 
United States, 286: Waterways 
of, 251 

Colonization, of Islands, 46-50 
Of the mainland, 18, 46-93 

Columbus, Bartholomew, 35, 39, 
40,47 

Columbus, Christopher, 7, 8, 33-42, 
84 
As Governor, 46-47 

Columbus, Diego, 35, 39, 47, 48, 60 

Columbus, Ferdinand, 44 

Commerce. (See Trade) 

Cordoba (Spain), 13, 16, 34 

Cordoba (Argentina), 143, 228 

Cordoba, Hernandez de, 55 

Coro (Venezuela), 75, 77, 149, 150 

Corregidor 

Colonial, 121; Spanish, 95 

Corrientes, 82 

Cortes, Hernando, 56, 57, 58-65, 72, 
94, 130 

Cosa, Juan de la, 50 

Costa Rica, 211, 274, 275 

Cotopaxi, 23 

Council of Castile, 94, 95 

Coimcil of the Indies, 47, 95, 97, 100 
Estabhshed, 97 

Cozumel, Island of, 55, 56 

Creoles, 82, 123, 141, 144, 149, 156, 
158 
Jealousy between European bom 
and, 141-142, 168; Traits of, 
151 

Creole Party, 150 

Crusades, 16 



294 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



Cuba, 27, 36, 39, 40, 43, 46, 48, 51, 
54, 55, 56, 58, 62, 72, 143, 274 
Agriculture in, 243; and the Great 
War, 274^275; Captaincy-Gen- 
eral of, 99; Colonization of, 49; 
Natives of, 28, 48, 49; Popula- 
tion, 225; Railroads of, 250; 
Slaves in, 112; United States 
and, 259-261 

Cuyo, Province of, 138 

Cuzco, 29, 67, 68, 70, 71, 132, 155 j 

D 

Da Gama, Vasco, 33, 41, 42, 43, 84 
Da Sa, Mem, 87 
Darien. (See Panama) 
Colony of, 52, 53, 66; Gulf of, 50, 

51; River of, 50; Santa Maria 

del, 51 
De Garay, 81 

De Leyva, Andres Venero, 78, 79 
Demarcation Line, 38 
De Medici, 44 
De Soto, Hernando, 69 
De Torre, General, 153 
De Vaca, 80, 81 
Diaz, Bartholomew, 33 
Diaz, Juan, 58 
Diaz, Porfirio, President of Mexico, 

202, 205, 208, 256 
Administration of (1877-1910), 

209 
Dominica, Island of, 39 
Dominican Friars, 48, 124, 125, 131 
Drake, Sir Francis, 76, 130, 142 
Dutch, 88, 143 

Buccaneers, 130; in Brazil, 88-89, 

92; in West Indies, 143 

E 

East Indies, 43 

Economic Conditions 

Colonial, 102-116; Present, 238- 
251; Spanish, 8, 18 

Ecuador, 23, 67 

Agriculture in, 242; and the Great 
War, 275, 276; Education, 231; 
Enters Confederation, 155; 
Indians of, 23, 221; Mestizos 
in, 224; Mountains of, 23; 
Population of, 225; Since inde- 
pendence, 181-183; Wars for 
independence, 154-155 

Education 

Colonial, 125-127, 229; Present 
day, 228-232; Scholarship (Co- 
lonial), 126; Universities (Colo- 



nial), 126; Roman Church and, 
229 

El Dorado, 76-77, 80 

Encomienda, 76, 110-111 

Beginning of, 118-119; New laws 
relating to, 120 

England, 7, 16, 21, 102, 103, 148 
Relations with Latin America, 
255 

English, 46, 112. (See British) 
Buccaneers, 130; Capture Buenos 
Ayres, 142-144; Commercial 
interests in Latin America, 142, 
269, 270; In West Indies, 143; 
In Wars for Independence, 
152-153, 173-174, 175 



Fair God, The, 59 

Fair System 

In Spanish colonies, 103 

Ferdinand, King of Aragon, 16, 17, 
34, 35, 47, 50, 94, 111 

Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, 145, 
149, 156, 169, 170 

Fleets 

Spanish Merchant, 103, 104 

Flores, Juan Jose, 182 

Florida, 21, 43 

Fonseca, 39, 64 

France, 10, 16, 21, 35, 85, 143 

Francia, Dr., Dictator of Paraguay, 
183 

Franciscan Order, 122, 124, 125, 131 

French 

Buccaneers, 130; In Brazil, 87; 
In West Indies, 143; Relations 
with Latin America, 255; Rev- 
olution, 148, 150 

Frias, Manuel de, 82 

G 

Genoa, 33, 34, 39, 51 
Geography 

Economic influence of, 239 
Germans 

In Venezuela, 75, 76; In Brazil, 
and Chile, 226; Relations with 
Latin America, 254 
Germany, 272-281 
Gold, 51, 62, 69, 77, 78 

First found by Spaniards, 106- 
107; In Brazil, 90; In Mexico, 
102; In Peru, 102 
Gothic 
Language, 11; Population in 
Spain, 11 



INDEX 



295 



Goths, 10, 12 
Government 
Argentina, 216-217; Bolivia, 219; 
Brazilian, 217-218; Character- 
istics of, in Latin America, 214- 
215; Chilean, 219; Cuba, 220; 
Haiti, 220; Mexican, 215-216; 
Peruvian, 219; Republics of 
Central America, 219-220; 
Spanish Colonial, 140-141; 
Uruguay, 219; Venezuela, 218- 
219 
Gracias a Dios, Cape, 41, 50 
Granada, 16, 34, 35, 60 
Great Britain. (See England) 
Great War, The 
Argentina and, 276, 277, 278 
Bolivia and, 275, 276 
Brazil and, 272-274 
Chile and, 276, 278, 279 
Colombia and, 276 
Costa Rica and, 274, 275 
Cuba and, 274, 275 
Economic effects of, 280, 281 
Ecuador and, 275, 276 
Guatemala and, 274, 275 
Haiti and, 274, 275 
Honduras and, 274, 275 
Mexico and, 279-280 
Nicaragua and, 274, 275; other 

influences of, 281 
Paraguay and, 276 
Peru and, 275 
Salvador and, 275, 276 
Santo Domingo and, 275, 276 
Uruguay and, 275, 276 
Venezuela and, 276 
Greeks, 8, 10, 13 
Grijalva, Juan de, 55, 56 
Guadalajara, 109, 169, 228 
Guadalete, River (Spain), 12 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 203 
Guatemala, 64, 99, 210, 211, 212, 
274, 275 
Independence of, 173; Interven- 
tion in, by United States, 264 
Guayaquil, 22, 155, 162, 228 
Guiana, 22, 28 

Agriculture in, 242; Natives of, 28 
Guicciardini, Italian Historian, 18, 

19 
Guzman-Bianco, President Vene- 
zuela, 178-179 

H 

Habana, 49, 55, 72 
Captured by English, 104 



Haiti (see also Santo Domingo), 27, 

37, 149, 274, 275 
Agriculture in, 243; Native of, 28; 

Railroads, 250; Slaves, 111, 

112; Trade, 148; United States 

intervention in, 285 
Hamilcar, Barca, 9 
Haimibal, 9 

Hawkins, John, 76, 111, 130, 142 
Henry, Prince, The Navigator, 32- 

33 
Henry VII, Kmg of England, 35 
Hidalgo (Spanish Knight), 17, 39, 47 
Hidalgo, Miguel, 169-170 
Hispaniola (Haiti), 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 

46-48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 63, 72, 75 
Holland, 90. (See Dutch) 
Honduras, 64, 210, 212, 274, 275 

Gold in, 106; Government of, 220 
Houston, Sam, 203 
Huascar, The Inca, 68, 70 
Huguenots, 87 
Humboldt, 105, 108, 109, 123 



Iberians, 7, 8, 11, 13 

Immigration (Latin American), 

225-227 
Incas, 29, 85 

Civihzation of, 29-30, 67-69; 

Empire of, 67; Industrial or- 
ganization of, 68-69 
India, 85 
Indian Affairs, Department of, 38, 

39 
Established, 38 
Indian House, 97, 102-103, 111 
Indians (see Natives), 27, 28, 48, 

50, 52, 60, 63 
BoUvian, 29; Chilean, 29; Cuban, 

28, 48; Haiti, 28, 39; New Laws 

concerning, 120; Peru, 29; 

Wages of, in Colonies, 121; 

Porto Rico, 49; Treatment of 

by Spaniards, 118 
Indies, 38, 44 
Inquisition, 17, 18 
In Colonies, 125, 140; Spanish, 

16, 118 
Institutions, Colonial, 94 
Intendencies, 100 
International relations, 253-269 
Intervention 

United States, 264 
Invasion (of Spain) 
Suevi, 10; Vandal, 10; West 

Goth, 10 



296 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



Irala, Governor of Paraguay, 80 
Administration of, 80-81; Allows 

polygamy, 122 
Isabella, Queen, 16, 17, 34, 35, 39, 

41, 47, 94 
Isabella (Hispaniola colony), 39, 47 
Isthmus of Panama (see Darien), 

22,52 
Italy, 10 
Merchants of, 44; Relations with 

Latin America, 254 
Iturbide, Agustin de (Emperor of 

Mexico), 171-172 



Jamaica, 39, 42, 49, 51, 54, 72, 149 

Captured by English, 130, 142; 

Slaves in, 112; Trade with, 148 

Jefferson, Thomas, 148 

Jesuits, 124 
Expelled from Brazil, 92; From 
New Spain, 130-131; Mission- 
aries, 82; In Paraguay, 82; Re- 
stored in Colombia, 180; Work 
in Brazil, 87, 90, 91 

Jews, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 
118 

John, Dom, of Portugal, 165 
Becomes John VI, 166 

John IV, King of Portugal, 89 

John V, King of Portugal, 91 

Juarez, Benito, President (Mexico), 
202, 205-206, 208 

Junin, Lake, 24 

Junta, 146, 151 

In the Colonies, 146; Of Caracas, 
149; Of Cartagena, 152; Organ- 
ization of in Spain, 146 

K 

Kalifs, 16 
King, Rufus, 148 
Knights, Orders of, 15, 17, 20 
Alcantara, 15; Calatrave, 15; 

Evora, 15; Hospitalers, 15; 

Santiago, 15; Templars, 15; 

Teutonic, 15 



Labor 

Indian, 110-111; Negro, 111-112 
Labrador, 21 
La Cosa, 42 

Lakes, Latin America, 24 
La Navidad, Colony of, 37, 39, 46, 
47 



Land question in Latin America, 
245 

La Noche Triste, 63 

La Paz, 155 

La Plata (see Buenos Ayres), 23, 
24, 28, 75, 86, 137-138 
Colonization of, 79-82; Popula- 
tion, 127 

La Plata, Rio de, 44, 46, 251 

Las Casas, 36, 49, 111, 119 

Latin America 
Americans in, 226; Anglo-Saxon 
America and, 253; Asiatics in, 
226; Church and state, rela- 
tion of in, 236-237; Cities of, 
228; Colonization of, 7, 46-93; 
Education in, 22S-232; Euro- 
peans m, 225; French in, 226; 
Geography of, 21-27; Germans 
in, 226; Immigration to, 226- 
227; Italians in, 226; Labor in, 
246-247; Land question in, 
245-246; Mining m, 243-245; 
Monroe Doctrine and, 264-265; 
Morals of, 221-225; Native 
races, 27-31; Newspapers, 233- 
234; Piety in, 235; Popula- 
tion m, 1800, 127-128; Pres- 
ent population, 225; Products 
of, 240; Races and society in 
221-237; Railroads, 247-250 
Religious liberty in, 236-237 
Ruling race, characteristics of 
223; Society in (Colonial), 118 
Transportation in, 247-251 
Working classes, 227-228; Wa- 
terways, 251 

Laws of the Indies, 97 

League of Nations, 281-282 

Lima, 24, 73, 110, 138, 163 

Founded, 70; Morals of, 223; 
Population of, in 1800, 128; 
Present population, 228 

Lisbon, 32, 33, 43, 84, 100, 165 

Literature 
Latin American, 332-333; Latin, 
9; Spanish Colonial, 127 

Llama, The, 66 

Local Government, Colonial, 99 

Lopez, Carlos (Paraguayan dicta- 
tor), 183 

Lopez, Francisco, 183 

Lusitanians, 8, 9 

M 
Madeira Islands, 33, 85, 86 
Magdalena River, 24, 109, 251 



INDEX 



297 



Magellan, 43, 65 
Circumnavigates earth, 43 

Magellan, Straits of, 22, 43 

Maipo, Battle of, 160-161 

Maipo, mountain, 23 

Malacca, Straits of, 40 

Malaga, 35 

Manco, The Inca 
Proclaimed Inca, 70; Manco 's in- 
surrection, 71 

Manila, 43 

Manuel, Nuno, 42 

Maracaibo, Lake, 24; Province of, 
149 

Marco Polo, 34 

Margarite, The Priest, 47 

Maria, Queen, of Portugal, 165, 166 

Mayas, 27, 30 

Mendoza, Antonio, 72, 129-130 

Mendoza, City of (Argentina), 110, 
158, 228 

Mendoza, Hurtado, 74 

Mendoza, Pedro de, 79 

Mestizo, 123, 224 

Mexico. (See also New Spain) 
Agriculture in, 242-243; Alvarez, 
President, 205-206; Ancient 
civilization of, 56-60; and the 
Great War, 276, 279, 280; City 
of, 61, 63, 73, 169, 228; Climate, 
26; Coast of, 43; Conquest of, 
46, 55-65; Effect of conquest 
on Islands, 72-73; Creoles of, 
171; Diaz, President, 208; 
Education in, 231; Empire of 
Iturbide, 172; Empu-e of Max- 
imilian, 207; European in- 
tervention in, 206; From 
1848-1854, 205; From 1854r- 
1861, 206; Geography of, 25; 
Government of, 215-216; 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 
205; Gulf of, 45, 64, 130; In- 
dependence of, 171; Jesuits 
expelled from, 130; Juarez, 
President of, 208; Land ques- 
tion in, 246; Mines of, 25, 244; 
Napoleon III and, 207-208; 
Natives of, 25, 221, 244; 
O'Donju, Viceroy of, 171; 
Population of, in 1800, 127; 
Present population, 225; Rail- 
roads in, 250; Reforms in 
eighteenth century, 131; Re- 
partimientos in, 119; Republic 
established, 172, 202; Revolu- 
tion of 1910-11, 209-210; Riv- 



ers of, 25; Santa Ana and, 
202-204; Since Independence, 
202-210; States of, 169; Texas 
revolt, 243; United States and, 
256, 257; Wars for Independ- 
ence, 168-175; War with 
United States, 204 

Middle class 
In Latin America, 238-239; In 
Spain, 12 

Miramon, Miguel, 206 

Miranda, Francisco de, 142, 148, 
149, 150 
Death of, 150 

Mines, 9, 44 
Mexican, 107; Returns from, 108 

Minmg, 106-108 
Early Spanish in colonies, 107; 
New methods, 107; Laws, 107- 
108 

Missionaries, 235, 237 

Missions, Protestant, 208 

Mississippi River, 21, 24 

Mita, 110 
In Peru, 111; In Mexico, 111 

Mohammedan Conquest of Spain, 
13 
Rule in Spain, 15 

Monasteries, 17, 73 

Monopolies, 114-115 

Monroe Doctrine 
Formulated, 174^175; How af- 
fected by European War, 266; 
How thought of by Latia 
Americans, 264-265; By United 
States, 263; Shall it be aban- 
doned? 266 

Montevideo (Uruguay), 144, 156, 
159, 160, 166, 228 

Montezuma II, 30, 51, 58, 61, 62- 
63, 69 

Moors, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14-16, 17, 18, 
20, 32, 118 

Moralles, Jose, Maria, 170 

MorHlo, 152, 153 

Mountain Peaks, 22, 23, 25 

Mulattos, 123 

N 

Napo, river, 72 
Napoleon, 143 

Invades Portugal, 165; Seizes 
Spanish crown, 145 
Naryaez, 49, 62, 63 
Native Races. (See also Indians) 

Of Chile and Peru, 29; Of Cuba 



298 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



and Haiti, 28; Of Eastern South 
America, 28; Of Yucatan, 55 
Negroes, 56, 123, 224 

Importation of, 48; Slaves, 110 
Neutrality 
Of Argentina, 278 
Of Chile, 278-279 
Of Mexico, 279-280 
New Castle, 70 

New Granada (see also Colombia), 
75 
Colonization of, 77; De Eslaba, 
first Viceroy, 136; Gorgora, 
Archbishop, Viceroy, 137; In- 
dependence of, 151; Popula- 
tion in 1800, 127; Republic 
founded 179; Revolt in, 141; 
Vice-royalty of, 79, 133, 136- 
137; Wars for Independence in, 
152-153 
New Spain (see also Mexico), 64, 98 
Early viceroys, 130; Jesuits ex- 
peUed from, 130, 131; News- 
papers in, 127; Political 
history of (1600-1800), 129- 
131 
New Toledo, 70 
Newspapers 

Brazilian, 233; Buenos Ayres, 
233; Central American, 233; 
Chilean, 233 
Nicaragua, 211, 274, 275 
Nicuesa, 50, 53 

Plants colony on Isthmus, 52 
Nina, The, 36, 37 
Nombre, de Dios, 52, 65 
Nunez, Rafael, President of Colom- 
bia, 180 

O 

Obregon, President, 282-284 
Ocampo, Spanish explorer, 43 
O'Higgins, Ambrosio, Viceroy, 133, 

135 
O'Higgins, Bernardo, 158, 159 
Ojeda, 42, 50, 51, 52-53, 65, 75, 77, 

84 
Olid, Cristoval de, 64 
Oriental influence on Spain, 7, 13, 

14 
Orinoco, River, 22, 23, 40, 77, 109, 

144, 153, 257 
Bolivar's campaigns along, 152 
Ovando, Nicholas de. Governor 

Hispaniola, 42, 47, 48, 50, 122 
Treatment of Indians, 119 



Pacific Ocean, 22, 24, 43, 53, 64 
Coast of, 64, 65, 130; Discovery 
of, 43 

Paez, Dictator of Venezuela, 178 

Palos (Spam), 34, 35, 36, 37 

Pampas, 23 
Indians, 28 

Panama, 109, 274, 275 

Canal, 42, 66, 211, 258, 270, 286; 
City of, 65, 156; Isthmus of, 
22, 42, 45; Railroad, 211; Re- 
public of, 21, 258-259, 264 

Pan-American Congress 
Fu-st, 176, 267; Second and thkd, 
267-268 

Pan-Americanism, 267-269 

Monroe Doctrine and, 268; Euro- 
pean War and, 269 

Papacy, 77 

Paraguay 
Agriculture in, 242; and the Great 
War, 276; Colonized, 82; Edu- 
cation in, 231; Independence 
of, 183; Indians in, 82; Prov- 
ince of, 138; River, 22, 24, 109, 
251; Since Independence, 183 

Parana River, 24, 79, 82, 251 

Paulists, 90 

Peace Conference, The, 281, 282 

Pedrarias, DavUa, Governor of 
Darien, 53, 66 

Pedro, Dom, 167, 168 

Pemambuco (Brazil), 85, 88 

Peru 
Abascal, Fernando, viceroy of, 135, 
155; Agriculture, 242; Amit, 
Don Manuel, viceroy, 133; 
and the Great War, 275 ; Aviles, 
Viceroy of, 135; Bolivar, Simon, 
dictator of, 184; Castilla, Ra- 
mon, president of, 184; Civil 
War in, 71; Conquest of, 46, 
65-73; De Croix, Don Theo- 
dore, viceroy of (1784-1790), 
135; Early dictators, 184; Early 
viceroys, 131-132; Extent of 
viceroyalty of, 133; Indians of, 
221; Labor, in Colonial, 111; 
Later viceroys, 133; Mendoza, 
Antonio de, 132; Hurtado de, 
132; Mines of, 44, 244; O'Hig- 
gins, Ambrosio, viceroy, 133, 
135; Pardo, Manuel, president 
of (1872-1876), 184; Popula- 
tion in 1800, 127; Present popu- 



INDEX 



299 



lation, 225; Railroads, 249; 
Recent political history, 185; 
Reforms in colonial govern- 
ment, 135; San Martin, inva- 
sion of, 161; Santa Cruz in, 
184; Since independence, 184- 
186; Taboada, Admiral de, 
viceroy of, 135; Toledo, Don 
Francisco de, viceroy of, 132; 
Wars for independence in, 155; 
War with ChUe, 185 

Philip II, King of Spain, 88 

Philip III, King of Spain, 82 

Philippines, 43, 97 

Phcenicians, 8, 13 

Pinchincha, Battle of, 154 

Pines, Isle of, 39 

Pinta, The, 36, 37 

Pinzon brothers, 36, 37 
Vincente, 42, 84 

Piracy, 76 

Pitt, WUliam, 148 

Pizarro, Fernando, 69, 71 

Pizarro, Francisco (Conqueror of 
Peru), 51, 53, 54, 65-72, 73, 85 

Pizarro, Gonzalo, 71, 72 

Polk, James K., President, 204 

Pombal, Marquis of, 91 
Reforms of, in Brazil, 92 

Ponce de Leon, 43, 48 

Population (Latin American) 
In 1800, 127-128; Of Cities, 228; 
Present in, 225 

Porto Bello, 52, 103, 136 

Portugal, 8, 9, 16, 32, 38, 43, 86, 
92, 102, 165, 273 
Revolution of 1820 in, 167 

Portuguese, 7, 33, 37, 42, 45, 84 
Colonization of Brazil, 46, 85-87, 
100; Crusades, 16; Expelled 
from Brazil, 168; Knights, 15; 
Navigators, 44; Voyagers, 32- 
33 43 

Prescott, William H., 73 

Puerto Cabello (Venezuela), 150, 
154 

Q 

Quesada, 78 
Quichuas, 29, 30 
Quicksilver 

Mines of, 107; Monopoly on, by 

Spain, 114; Used in Mining, 

107 
Quito, 25, 68, 72, 73, 78, 146, 154, 

228 



Monasteries in, 73; Population of, 
in 1800, 128; University of, 231 

R 

Railroads, Latin American, 247-250 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 76 
Religion, 11, 17, 18, 50 
Aztec, 31, 59-60; Inca, 68; Pres- 
ent day religion in Latin Amer- 
ica, 23, 234-237 
Religious Liberty, 235-236 
Repartimientos, 48, 119 
Residencia 

Spanish, 96; Colonial, 100 
Rio de Janeiro, 84, 91, 92, 160, 228 
Founding of, 87; Royal Court in, 
166 
Rivers 

Mexican, 26; South American, 
23, 239-240 
Roads and Travel, 108-110 
Roman 

Church, 15; Empire, 9, 10, 13; 
Soldiers, 9 
Rosario (Argentina), 228 

S 

Saavedra, Governor La Plata col- 
ony, 81-82 

Sagres, 32 

Saint Augustine (Florida), 130 

St. Die, College of, 44 

Saint Roque, Cape, 84 

Salta, 110 

Salto River, 106 

Salvador, 275, 276 

San Espiritu, 79 

San Francisco River, 24, 84, 89 
Naming of, 84 

San Juan de Ullos, 56, 130 

San Juan (Porto Rico), 48 
River, 65, 66 

San Lucar de Barrameda, 40 

San Martin, Jose de, 155, 157-158, 

159 

Chacabuco, Battle of, 160; En- 
ters Lima, 162; Estimate of, 
163; In Chile, 160; Invades 
Peru, 161; Maipo, Battle, 160- 
161; Meets Bolivar, 162; Re- 
tires to Europe, 162-163 ^ 

San Miguel, 52, 66 ""^ 

Santa Anna, 202, 203, 205 

Santa Cruz, 202, 205 

Santa Fe, 81, 82 

Santa Maria, 36, 37, 46 
Del Darien, 51, 52 



300 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



Santiago de Chile, 110, 123, 146, 

158, 160 
Founded, 73 
Santiago de Cuba, 49, 55, 56, 72 
Santo Domingo (see also Haiti and 

Hispaniola), 50, 148^ 275, 276 
Republic of, intervention in, 264; 

United States and, 261-262, 

284 
Santos (Brazil), 85 
Sao Paulo, 87, 90, 228 
Sao Salvador, 87 
Sarmiento, President, 192, 229 
Scott, General Winfield, 204 
Seville, 16, 38, 44, 97, 102, 146 

Archbishop of, 14, 38 
Silver 
First found by Spaniards, 106; 

In Mexico, 102; In Peru, 102 
Slaves 

Indian, 55, 76, 77; Negro, 56, 76, 

86, 110, 111-112; Treatment 

of, 112; Value of, 112 
Social Classes, 123-124 
Solis, Juan Diaz de, 79 
Sousa, Martin de, 85, 87 
Sousa, Thomas de, 86 
South America 

Climate of, 24-26; Coast of, 42; 

Colonization of, 46, 50; Flora 

of, 25; Independence, 153; 

Lakes of, 24; Land Relief of, 

22; Natives of, 28-30; Rivers 

of, 23, 24 
Spain, 8, 9, 10, J2, 13, 15, 17, 19, 

21, 31, 33, 35, 37, 40, 42, 43, 

85 
Economic program for her col- 
onies, 102; Present relations 

with Latin America, 253 
Spaniards, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 

19, 28, 31, 48, 49, 50, 57-58, 
63, 64 

Spanish 
Church, 17; Colonies, 38, 41, 48, 
54, 108; Colonial administra- 
tion, 94-101; Conquests, 9, 18, 
65-74; Conquistadors, 17, 53, 
55; Crusades, 16; Economic 
policy, 142; Intermarriage with 
natives, 122; Knights, 15, 17, 

20, 47; Language, 9, 38; Mines, 
9; Navigators, 42-45; Ports, 
108; Possessions, 38, 44; Race, 
7; Settlers in America, 108; 
Society, 17; Taxation of col- 
onies, 112-116; Treatment of 



Indians, 118-124; Voyages, 42- 

45; West Indies, 21 
Spice Islands, 40, 41, 43 
Straits of Magellan, 22, 23 
Sucre, General, 155, 162, 163, 176 
Sugar Industry 
In Brazil, 86, 241; In Cuba and 

Haiti, 105, 243 



Taft, William H., president, 256 
Tagus River, 37 
Tampico, 55 
Tarik, 12 
Taxes 
Aztec, 58; Church revenues, 115; 
Import and export duties, 114; 
Indian tribute and Royal Fifth, 
113; Spanish colonial, 112-116 
Taylor, General Zachary, 204 
Tejada, Lerdo de, president of Mex- 
ico, 208 
Tepenacs, 58 
Texas, 129, 205 
Revolt of, 203 
Tezcuco, 58, 62 
Titicaca, Lake, 24, 29, 80, 109, 155, 

157 
Tlacopan, 58 
Tlascalans, 59, 60, 63 
Toledo, Maria de, 47 
Toleration, 13-15 
Tolosa, Perez de, 76 
Toltecs, 30, 58 
Totonacs, 60 
Trade 

Breaking down of Spanish trade 
monopoly, 104; Contraband, 
104; Monopoly of, 102-104; 
Panama Canal and, 270; Pres- 
ent conditions of, 269-270, 287 
Transportation, 247-251 
Travel in Latin America, 108-110 

Cost of, 110 
Trinidad, Island of, 40 

Captured by English, 144-145; 
Trade with, 148 
Tucuman, Battle of, 157 

City of, 228; Congress at, 159 
Tupac Amaru, 132, 133, 140 

Revolt of, 133; Execution of, 134 
Tupi Indians, 28 

U 

Ulloa, Jorge Juan and Antonio de, 

108, 109, 120-121 
Ulloa, San Juan de, 56, 130 



INDEX 



301 



United States, 7, 21, 23, 148, 176, 
206, 272, 274 
Central American States and, 
257, 259; Civil War in, 207; 
Intervention by, in Mexico, 
256-257; Relations with South 
American Republics, 262-263; 
War with Mexico, 204 

Universities in Latin America 
Colonial, 126; Present day, 229- 
232 

Upper California, 205 

Uraba, GuK of, 77 

Uruguay, 21, 82 
Agricultiire, 241; and the Great 
War, 275, 276; Education in, 
229; Immigration to, 225-226; 
Independence of, 200; Junta of, 
159; Political history of, 200- 
201; Railroads in, 249; Wars 
for mdependence in, 159>-160 

Uspallata Pass, 159 

Utrecht, Treaty of, 103, 111, 130 

V 

Valencia, 37 

Valdivia, Pedro de, 73, 74 
City of, 73 

Valparaiso, 228 

Valverde, 69 

Velasco, Luis de, 130 

Velasquez, Don Diego, First Gov- 
ernor of Cuba, 48, 49, 55, 56, 58 

Venezuela, 21, 22, 24, 46, 75, 133, 
148, 150, 209 
Agriculture in, 242; and the Great 
War, 276; Boundary dispute, 
264; Captaincy-General, 77, 
99, 137; Colonized, 75-77; 
Creoles of, 149; Discovery of, 
75; Education in, 231; First 
Republic of, 151; German 
merchants in, 75-76; Govern- 
ment of (Present), 218-219; 
Independence of, 151; Mestizos 
in, 224; Mining in, 245; Mon- 
roe Doctrine and, 264; Naming 
of, 75; Negroes in, 222, 224; 
Population of, in 1800, 127; 
Present population, 225; Rail- 



roads, 250: Since independence, 
178-179; Wars for independ- 
ence, 150-151 
Vera Cruz, 49, 55, 57, 62, 72, 103, 

109, 130, 202, 204 
Verde, Cape, 33 
Islands, 38, 40 
Vespucci, Amerigo, 42, 44, 75, 84 

Voyages of, 84 
Viceroy, Functions of, 98 
Vice-royalty 

Of New Spain, 129; Of Peru, 131 
Villegagnon, Nicolas, 87 
Virgin Islands, 285 

W 

Waldseemiiller, Map of, 44 

Walker, William, 212 

Wars 
Napoleon, 143; Spanish Succes- 
sion, 91, 143; Seven Years, 143 

Wars for Independence, 148^163 
British Forces in, 152-163; Causes 
of, 140-146; Campaign of 1817- 
1818, 152; Campaign of 1819, 
153; In Ecuador, 154; Mexican, 
168-172; Southern movement, 
15&-163; Uruguay, 159-160 

Welsers, 75, 76 

West Indies, 21, 44, 46, 54, 76, 142 
Colonies of, 48, 50; Dutch col- 
onies, 104; English in, 104; 
Geography of, 27 

Whitelock, General, 144 

Wilson, President Woodrow, 272, 
273 

X 

Ximenes, Cardinal, 17 



Yucatan, 27, 30, 43, 55, 205 
Raided by buccaneers, 130 

Z 

Zambo, 123, 222 
Zarata, 81 
Zuloaga, 206 
Ziiniga, y Ercilla, 126 



PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY 



This glossary is appended as a practical aid to students. It lays no 
claim to exactness. In making such a glossary many difl&culties were met. 
First, many of the names have become Anglicized and for such the English 
pronunciation is allowable. A second difficulty lies in the fact that many 
Latin American names have a peculiar Latin American pronunciation, and 
it becomes very difficult to determine which form to use. In such cases 
the CastiUian form has generally been followed. Thanks are due Professor 
E. B. Nichols for his expert assistance. 

The markings have been made as simple as possible, and are as follows: 
Table op Sounds 



a in ale 

k in c4re 
S, in &m 
a in arm 
a in ask 



e m eve 
6 in 6nd 
e in ever 



i in Ice 
linlll 



o in old 
6 in 6rb 
6 in 6dd 
55 in food 
66 in f66t 
ou in out 



u m use 
A in <irn 
ii in tip 



th in ^^en 
th in thin 



Abascal (a-bas-kai'), Fernando Jos6 

(fSr-nS.n'-do h5-sa') 
Aconcagua (a-kon-ka'-gwa) 
Adelantado i&'-tha-lan-t&'-tho) 
Alcalde (al-kal'-da) 
Alcalde de Crimen (da cre'-m6n) 
Alcd,ntara (al-kan'-ta-ra) 
Alcavala (al-ka-va'-la) 
Algarves (al-gar'-v6s) 
Alhambra (S.-iam'-bra) 
AUende (ai-y6n'-de) 
Almagro (al-mag'-ro) 
Alvarado, de (da, al'-va-ra'-ii^5) 
Alvdrez (al-va'-rath) 
Amat (a-maf), Don Manuel (d6n 

mS,-no5-Sl') 
Amazon (a-ma-th5n') 
Anahuac (a-na'-wak) 
Andagoya (an-da-go'-ya), Pascual de 

(pas-kwar) 
Andrada (an-dra'-ffea) 
Antigua (an-te'-gwa) 
Apodaca (a-po-da'-ka) 
Aragon (a-ra-gon') 
Arawak (a'-ra-wak) 
Araucanian (S,r-6-ka'-nI-S,n) 
Arequipa (a-ra-ke'-pa) 
Argentina (Sp. ar-han-te'-na) 
Arica (a-re'ka) 
Ai-ista (arr es'-ta) 303 



Artigas (ar-te'-gas), Jos6 (ho-sa') 
Astm-ians (Eng. as-t5o'-re-3,ns) 
Asunci6n (a-so5n-the-on') 
Atahualpa (a-ta-wal'-pa) 
Audiencia (au-dyan'-the-a) 
Avil^s (a-ve-les') 
Ayacucho (a-ya-ko5'-ch5) 
Auto de f6 (ou'-t5 da fa') 
Aymard,s (i-ma-ras') 
Aztecs (S,z'-t6ks) 
Azores (a-z6rz') 

B 

Baetica (be'-ti-ka) 

Bahama (ba-a'-ma) 

Bahia (ba-e'-a) 

Balboa, de (bal-bo'-a) Vasco Nunez 

(vfis'-k5 n5on'-y6th) 
Balmaceda (bal-ma-tha'-i/ia) 
Balsas, Rio de las (bal-sas', re'-6 da 

las) 
Barcelona (bar-the-l6'-na) 
Basque (bask) 
Bastidas (has-te'-thaa) 
Bayonne (ba-y6n') 
Belgrano (b61-gra'-no) 
Belzu (bSl'-thoo) 
Benalca'zar (ba-nal-ka'-thar) 
Berber (btir'-ber) 
Bio Bio (be'-o be'-6) 



304 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



Bobadilla, de (ho-vartheV-ya) 
Bogota, Santa Fe de (bo-g5-ta', 

s3.n'-ta fa da) 
Bolivar (bo-le'-var), Simon 
Bolivia (Eng. bo-Uv'-I-a) 
Boulogne (boo-lon') 
Boves (bo'-ves) 
Boyacd, (bo-ya-ka') 
Boyl6 (boy-la'), Bernardo 
Bravo, de (bra'-v6), Melchar (mal- 

char') 
Brazil (bra-zel') 
Buenos Aires (bwa'-nos i'-ras) 
Bulnes (bool'-nes), Manuel 

C 

Cabildos (ca-bfl'-dos) 
Cabot (kab'-tit), Sebastian 
Cabral, de (da ka-bral'), Pedro 

CAdiz (Eng. ka'-diz; Sp. ka'-theth.) 

Calatrava (ka-la-tra'-va) 

Callao (ka-lya'-o) 

Calleja (kal-ya'-ha) 

Cantabrians (kS,n-ta,'-brI-S,ns) 

Capac, Huayna (ka'-pSk, wi'-na) 

Cape de la Vela (da la_ve'-la) 

Carabobo (ka-ra-bo'-bo) 

Caracas (ka-ra'-kas) 

Caribs (kar'-Ibs) 

Carranza (ka-rran'-tha) 

Carrera (ka-rre'-ra) 

Cartagena (kar-ta-je'-na; Sp. kar-ta- 

ha'-na) 
Casa de Contrataci6n (ka'-sa da 

con-tra-ta-thl-ongO 
Castellanos (cas-tel-ya'-nos), Juan 

de 
Castile (kSs-tel') 
Castro (kas'-tro), de Vaca (da va'- 

ka) 
Cauca (kau'-ka) 
Cauto (kou'-to) 
Caxamarca, or Cajamarca (ka-ha- 

mar'-ca) 
Cebellos (the-bgl'-yos), Antonio de 
Celman (thal'-man), Juarez (hwa'- 

ras) 
Cer6n (tha'-ron), Juan de 
Cerro de Pasco (th6'-rro pas'-ko) 
Ceuta (tha'-oo-ta) 
Chacabuco (cha-ka-boo'-ko) 
Chagres (cha'-gr6s) 
Chapat6n (cha-pa-ton') 
Charcas (char'-cas) 
Chibchas (chib'-chas) 



Chihuahua (che-wa'-wa) 

Chile (che'-la) 

Cholula (cho-l6o'-la) 

Cid (Eng. sW; Sp. theth) [var) 

Ciudad Bolivar {thy&o-thsith' bo-le'- 

Coahuela (co-a-we'-la) 

Coligny (ko-len-ye'), Gaspard de, 

Admiral 
Colombia (ko-lom'-be-a) 
Col6n (ko-lon') 
Concepcion (k6n-th6p-thy6n') 
Conquistador (Eng. k6n-kwfe'-tar 

dor; Sp. kon-kes-ta-</ior') 
Coquimbo (ko-kem'-bo) 
Cordillera (k6r-dl-ly6'-ra) 
C6rdoba (kor'-do-va), Hernandez 

de 
Coro (ko'-ro) 
Corral (kor-ral'), Ram6n 
Corregidor (Eng. kQ-r6j'-I-dor; Sp. 

ko-rra-he-i/ior') 
Corrientes (k6-rre-6n'-t6s) 
Cort6s (kor-tas'), Hernando 
Cosa (ko'-sa), Juan de la 
Costa Rica (kos'-ta re'-ka) 
Cotopaxi (ko-to-pa'-he) 
Cozumel (k5-soo-m6l') 
Creole (kre'-ol) 
Crespo (kras'-po) 
Croix (krwa), Theodoro de 
Cruz (da la krooth), Juana In6s 

de la 
Cruzada (kro5-tha'-i/ia) 
Cuba (ku'-ba) 
Cuyo (koo'-y5) 
Cuzco (koofft'-ko) 

D 

Daza (da'-tha),'Hilari6n (e-la-re-on') 

Darien (da-re-6n') 

De Medici (da m6'-de-che) 

De Soto {di, so'-to), Fernando 

De Torre (da to'-rra) 

De Vaca (da va'ka), Cabeza (ka- 

be'-tha) 
Diaz (de'-ash), Bartholomeu 
Di^z del Castillo (de'-ath d6l kSs- 

te'-lyo), Bernal 
Dominica (d6m-I-ne'-ka) 

E 
Ecuador (6'-kwa-ift6r) 
El Dorado (61 do-ra'-tho) 
El Mercurio (al m3,r-k6o'-re-6) 
Encomienda (6n-k6-ml-6n'-da) 
Ensico (6n-se'-ko) 



PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY 



305 



Entre Rios (6n'-tra re'-os) 

Ercilla y Ziiniga, de (6r-the'-lya e 

th5o'-nye-ga, da) 
Eslava (es-la'-ba), Sebastian de 
Evora (a'-v6-ra) 

F 

Ferdinand (f6r'-di-nand) 

Flores (fl5'-ras), Juana (hwa'-na) 

Jo36 
Fonseca, de (fon-sa'-ka), Juan 

Rodriguez (ro-dre'-gath) 
Francia (fran'-the-a), Jos6 Caspar 

Rodriguez 
Frias (fri'-as), Manuel de 

G 

Gama (ga'-ma), Vasco da 
Garay (ga-ri'), Juan de 
Garcia-Calder6n (gar-the'-a-kai- 

d6r-on') 
Garcia-Moreno (mo-re'-no) 
Genoa (j6n'-o-a) 
G6ngora, Diego de (gon'-g5-ra) 
Gonzalo (gon-tha'-lo) 
Gracias a Dios (gra'-the-as a dy5s') 
Granada (Eng. gra-na'-da; Sp. gra- 

n&'-thei) 
Grijalva (da gre-hal'-va), Juan de 
Guadalquivir (go-dai-kwlv'-gr; Sp. 

gwa-<^al-ke-ver') 
Guadaljara (gwa-</ia-la-ha'-ra) 
Guadelete (gwa-i/ia-la'-te) 
Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa-<Aa-loo'- 

pa e-thsl'-go) 
Guanahuato (gwa-na-wa'-to) 
Guatemala (gwa-ta-ma'-la) 
Guayaquil (gwi-ya-kel') 
Guerrero (g6r-ra'-r6) 
Guiana (ge-an'-a) 
Guinea (gin'-i) 
Guicciardini (gwe-tchar-de'-ne), 

Francesco (fran-ches'-co) 
Guzman-Bianco (gooth-man' blan'- 

W) g 

Habana (ha-va'-na) 

Haiti (ha'-ti) 

Hamilcar Barca (ha-mfl'-kar bar'- 

ka) 
Hannibal (hSn'-I-bal) 
Henequ^n (a-na-kan') 
Heredia (a-ra'-<fee-a), Jos6 Marfa de 
Hidalgo, y Costilla {e-thal'-go e kos- 

te'-lya), Miguel 
Hispaniola (his-pSn-yo'-la) 



Historia de las Indias Nueva 
Espana (es-tor'-I-a da las in'-de- 
as nwa'-va es-pan'-ya) 

Honduras (h6n-doo'-ras) 

Huascar (was'-kar) 

Huerta (w6r'-ta) 

Huguenots (hu'-ge-n6ts) 

Humboldt (Eng. hOm'-bolt), Fried- 
rich Heinrich Alexander von 



Iberians (i-be'-rl-an) 

Iguala (i-gwa'-la) 

Incas (In'-kas) 

Intendent (in-t6n'-d6nt) 

Irala (i-ra'-la) 

Iturbide (da e-toor-be'-i/ia), Agustin 

de 
Ixtaccihuait (es-tak-se'-hwatl) 



Jamaica (ja-ma'-ka) 

Judrez (hwa'-rath), Benito Pablo 

(ba-ne'-to pa'-blo) 
Jvmin (hoo-nen') 
Junta (hoon'-ta) 



K 



Kalif (ka'-lif) 



La Cosa (la ko'-sa) 

La Naci6n (la na-the-on') 

La Navidad (la na.-\l-th&th') 

La Noche Triste (la no'-cha trgs'- 

ta) 
La Paz (la path) 
La Plata (la pla'-ta) 
La Prensa (la pran'-sa) 
Las Casas (las ka'-sas), Bartolom6 

de (bar-to-lo-ma') 
La Serna (la sar'-na) 
La Valle (va'-lya) 
Le6n (la-5n') 
Leyva (lay'-va), Andros Venero de 

(an'-dros va-na'-ro) 
Libro de Tasas (leb'-ro th& tSs'-Sa) 
Lima (le'ma) 
Liniers (le-ne-ars') 
Lisbon (llz'-btin) 
Llama (lya'-ma) 
Lopez (lo'-path), Carlos Antonio 

(kar'-los an-t5'-nyo), Francisco 

Solano 
Lusitania (lu-sl-ta'-ni-a) 



306 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



M 

Madeira (ma-da'-e-ra) 

Madero (ma-<Ae'-ro) 

Magdalena (mag-da-la'-na) 

Magellan (ma-j6r-S,n), Fernando 

Maipo (mi'-po) 

Malaga (ma'-la-ga) 

Manco (mSn'-ko) 

Manaos (ma-na'-ush) 

Manuel (man-u-gl'), Nuno 

Manila (ma-ne'-la) 

Maracaibo (ma-ra-ki'-b5) 

MaranhSo (ma-ra-nyoun') 

Margarite (mar-ga-re'-ta) 

M6rida (ma'-re-iXa) 

Mayas (ma'-ySs) 

Mendoza (m6n-do'-tha), Antonio 

de Hurtado (iir-tk'-tho) 
Mestizo (Eng. mgs-te'-zo; Sp. mas- 

te'-tho) 
Mexico (Eng. m6k'-sI-ko; Sp. ma'- 

he-ko) 
Minas Geraes (me'-nash zha-rish') 
Minuano (me-nwa'-no) 
Miram6n (me-ra-mon'), Miguel 
Miranda (me-ran'-da), Francisco 
Mita (me'-ta) 
Mitre (me'-tra) 
Monagas (mo-na'-gas), Jos6 
Monteverde (mon-ta-v6r'-da) 
Montevideo (Eng. mon-te-vld'-e-o; 

Sp. mon-ta-ve-i/ia'-5) 
Montes (m6n'-tas) 
Montezuma (Eng. m6n-te-zoo'-ma) 
Morelos-Pav6n(mo-ra'-los-pa-von'), 

Jos6 Maria 
Morillo (mo-re'-lyo) 
Mosquero (mos-ke'-ro) 



N 
Napo (na'-po) 
Narvdez (nar-va'-ath), Pdnfilo de 

(pan'-fe-lo) 
Navarre (na-va'-rra) 
Navas de Tolosa (na'-vas da to-lo'- 

sa) 
Nevado de Colima (na-va'-i/io da 

ko-le'-ma) 
New Granada (Eng. gra-na'-da; 

Sp. nwa'-va gra-na'-f^a) 
Nicaragua (ne-ka-ra'-gwa) 
Nicuesa (ne-kwa'-sa) 
Nifia (ne'-nya) 
Nombre de Dios (nom'-bra da 

dyos') 



Noticias Secretas de Am&ica (n5- 
tl'-the-as 9a-kre-tas' da a-ma'-re- 
ka) 

Nunez (n55'-ny6th), Rafael 

Nuno (no5'-nyo), Manuel 



O 

Oaxaca (wa-ha'-ka) 

Ocampo (o-kam'-po) 

O'Donoju (5-d6-n5-h5o') 

O'Higgins (Sp. o-e'-gens), Bernardo 

Ojeda {6-hsi' -tha) 

Olid, de (6-mh'), Cristdbal 

Ordonanzas de la Minerla de Nueva 
Espana (or-do-nSn'-thas da la 
ml-na-re'-a da nwa'-va e-span'- 

ya) 

Orinoco (o-rl-no'-ko) 
Oroya (o-ro'-ya) 
Oruro (5-r65'-ro) 
Orzaba (6r-tha'-ba) 
Ovando (o-v&n'-do), Nicolds de 
(ne-ko-las') 



Paez (pa'-ath), Jos^ Antonio 
Palma (pal'-ma), Tomis Estrada 

(es-tra'-</ia) 
Palos (pa'-los) 
Pampas (pS,m'-pas) 
Panamd (pS.-na-ma') 
Pard (pa-ra') 
Paraguay (pa-ra-gwi') 
Parand (pa-ra-na') 
Partidos (par-te'-^/ios) 
Patos, Los Gos pa'-tos) 
Paya (pa'-ya) 
Pedrarias Ddvila (pa-dra'-re-as da'- 

ve-la) 
Pedro ^e'-dro) 
Pensacola (p6n-sa-ko'-la) 
Pernambuco (p6r-nam-bo6'-ko) 
Pesos de oro (pa'-sos da o'-ro) 
Pezuela (pe-thwe'-la) 
Pichincha (pe-chen'-cha) 
Pinta (pen'-ta) 
Pinzon (pen-th5n'), Martin Alonso, 

Vicente Ydnez 
Pizarro (Eng. pl-zar'-ro; Sp. pe-tha- 

rro), Francisco 
Pombal (pom-bal'), Marquis de 
Ponce de Le6n (pon'-tha da la-on'), 

Juan 
Popocatepetl (p6-po-ka-ta'-p6t'l) 
Portales (por-tal'-as), Diego 



PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY 



307 



Porto Bello (por'-to ba'-Iyo) 

Potosi (p6-to-se') 

Prieto (pre-a'-to) 

Pueblo de Indies (pw6b'-l5 da In- 

de-os) 
Puerto Cabello (pw6r'-to ka-bgl'- 

yo) 

Puerto Principe (pren'-the-pa) 

Q 

Queretaro (ka-ra'-ta-ro) 
Quesada (ka-sa'-tha) 
Quetzalcoatl (kat-thal-ko'-&t'l) 
Quichuas (ke'-chwas) 
Quito (ke'-to) 

K 

Ramalho, JoSo (ra-mal'-u) 

Reccared (re-kar'-gd) 

Recopilacion de leyes de los Reynos 
de las Indias (ra-ko-pe-la-</ie-on' 
da lay'-as da los ray-nos' da las 
en-de-as') 

Repartimientos (ra-par-te-mygn'- 
tos) 

Residencia (ra-se-d6n'-thya) 

Revillagigedo (ra-ve-lya-gi-g3.'-^/i5) 

Reyes (ra'-yas), Rafael 

Rio de Janeiro (re'-o da zha-na'-ro) 

Rio Grande do Sul (re'-o gran'-d6 
d66 sool) 

Rivadavia (rl-ba-da-be'-a), Bernar- 
do 

Roca (ro'-ka), Julio 

Rocafuerte (ro-ka-fw6r'-ta) 

Roderick (r6d'-er-Ik) 

Rojas Paul (ro'-has) 

Rojas Ricardo (re-kar'-<^o) 

Rosario (ro-sa'-re-6) 

Rosas (ro'-sas), Juan Manuel de 

Rousseau (ro6-so') 

S 
Saavedra (sa-a-va-f/ira), Antonio de 
Sagres (sa'-gr6sh) 
Saint Die (san dya') 
Salta (sal'-ta) 
Salto (sal'-to) 
Salvador (sal-va-<^or') 
San Antonio (san an-ton'-yo) 
San Carlos (san kar-los') 
San Espiritu (san es-pe'-r6-too) 
San Fernando (san f6r-nan'-d5) 
San Francisco (fran-thes'-ko) 
San Gabriel (gab-re-al') 
Sangai (san-gi') 



San Juan de Ulloa (san hwan da 

66l-y6'-a) 
Sanliicar de Barrameda (san-loo'- 

kar da bar-ra-ma'-i^a) 
San Luis Potosi (san l6o-es' po-to- 

se') 
San Martin, de (san mar-ten'), Jos6 
San Miguel, de (san me-gfel') 
San Sebastidn (san se-b5,s-tyS,n') 
Santa Ana (san'-ta a'-na), Antonio 

L6pez (an-ton'-yo l6'-pS,th) 
Santa Crus (san'-ta krooth) 
Santa Marta (mar'-ta) 
Santander (san-tan-d6r'), Francisco 

de Paula 
Santiago (san-te-a'-go) 
Santo Domingo (san'-to do-mln'-go) 
Santos (san'-tSSsh) 
Sao Paulo (soun pori-lQ6) 
Sao Roque (san-ro'-ka) 
Sao Salvador (sal-va-dor') 
Sao Vicente (ve-sen'-tg) 
Seville (Eng. se-vfl'; Sp. sa-vel'-ya) 
Sierra Madre (sl-gr'-a ma'-dra) 
Soils, de (so-les'), Juan Diaz 
Sorata (s6-ra'-ta) 
Sousa, de (soo'-za), Martim 
Sucre (soo'-kra), Antonio Jos6 de 
Sultepec (sool-ta'-pek) 



T 

Taboada, de (t^-ho-af-tha.), Admiral 

miral 
Tagus (ta'-giis) 
Tampico (tam-pe'-k5) 
Tarraconensis (tar-ra-ko-ngn'-sis) 
Taxco (tax'-ko) 
Tejada (te-ha'-f/ia), Lerdo de (Igr'- 

tho) 
Tepenacs (te-pg-nS,ks') 
Terraza Hacienda (tg-rra'-tha a- 

the-an'-da) 
Tierras Calientes (tyg'-rras ka-le- 

an'-tes) 
Tinta (ten'-ta) 
Titicaca (tl-te-ka'-ka) 
Tlacopan (tla-ko-pan') 
Tlaxcala (tlas-ka'-la) 
Tocuyo (to-ko6'-yo) 
Toledo (Eng. to-le'-do; Sp. to-la'- 

tho) 
Tolosa (to-l6'-sa), Pgrez de (pa'- 

rgth) 
Toltec (t6l-tgk') 
Totonacs (to-to-naks') 



308 



A HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICA 



Tucumdn (too-koo-man') 
Tunguragua (toon-goo-ra'-gwa) 
Tupac, Amaru (to6'-pS,k am-ar'-oo) 

U 

Ugarte (oo-gar'-ta) 

Uraba (oo-ra'-ba) 

Urbina (6or-be'-na) 

Urquiza (oor-ke'-tha, Justo Jos6 

Uruguay (o-ro-gwl') 

Uspallata (oos-pal-ya'-ta) 

Utrecht (u'-trSkt) 



Verde (vQr-d6') 

Vespucci (v6s-pu'-che), Amerigo 

Villa (vel'-ya) 

Villegaignon (vel-ga-nyon') 

Nicolas Durand 
Volcd,n de Colima (vol-kS.n' da ko- 

le'-ma) 

W 

Waldseemiiller (valt'-za-mu-ler), 

Martin 
Weyler, y Nicolau (va-l6r' e ne-ko- 

la'-66) 



Valencia (Eng. va-lSn'-shl-a; Sp. 

va-l6n-the'-a) 
Valdivia (val-de'-vya) 
Valparaiso (Eng. vftl-pa-ra'-zo; Sp. 

val-pa-ra-e'-so) 
Valverde (val-v6r'-da) 
Vela, de la (va'-la) 
Velasco (va-las'-ko), Luis de 
Velasquez (va-las'-kath), Diego 
Venero de Leyva (va-n6'-r5 da la'- 

yv3,), Andres 
Venezuela (Eng. ven-e-zwe'-la; Sp. 

va-na'-thwa-la) 
Vera Cruz (va'-ra krooth) 
Veragua (va-ra'-gwa) 



Ximenes (Eng. zl-me-nez'; Sp. he- 
ma'-nas) 

Y 
Yaqui (ya'-ke) 
Yucatdn (yoo-ka-tan') 



Zacatecas (tha-ka-tS'-kas) 

Zambo (tham'-bo) 

Zarata (tha-ra'-ta) 

Zelaya (tha-la'-ya), Jose Santos 

Zuniga, Ercilla y (thoon'-ye-ga, 6r- 

thel'-ya e) 
Zuloaga (soo-lo-a'-ga) 




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